Psychology of Carl Gustav Jung

Carl Gustav Jung, a Swiss psychiatrist, along with Sigmund Freud and Alfred Adler, was one of the founders of what is described today as depth psychology.

The work of Jung exceeds, in its dimension, the field of psychology. His understanding of human psychology stemmed from his individual experiences, dreams, and his introspective, self-analyzing abilities. He went beyond the demarcation line dividing psychology from philosophy and theology, investigating parapsychological and non-causal phenomena such as occultism, synchronicity, and intuition.

After his departure from Freud, Jung developed his own psychotherapeutic technique, which he called “analytical psychology” to distinguish it from Freud’s psychoanalysis.

Jung’s innovative, multi-dimensional therapeutic concepts are no less than a “Copernican” revolution and a foundation on which a new science of psychology could be built. Potentially, they are of comparable importance to quantum theory in physics.

The following series of articles on the psychology of Carl Gustav Jung conveys to the interested reader just a glimpse of his monumental work and the richness of his ideas.

Other articles about C.G. Jung

• Carl Gustav Jung. A Short Biography
• C.G. Jung Psychological Types
• Jung’s Word Association Test

Jung’s Contribution to Psychology

Jung introduced to psychology terms such as “introversion”/ “extroversion,” “conflict,” the concepts of the collective unconscious, archetypes, personality typology, and synchronicity. However, his most unique contribution was the concept of the collective unconscious and archetypes.

Freud saw the unconscious as a container of forgotten or displaced individual memories. He followed the concept of “tabula rasa,” seeing the newborn child as an empty slate starting to accumulate experiences and memories only after birth. In contrast to Freud, Jung discovered within the unconscious a deeper layer embracing the condensed knowledge of humanity developed throughout evolution. He termed this condensed inherited knowledge the “collective unconscious.”

Through studies of myths, art, and literature, as well as observations of his patients, Jung repeatedly encountered common images and ideas that exist collectively throughout human history. He called these entities “archetypes,” which are inherited patterns of behavior that help individuals adapt to their changing life circumstances.

Jungian Psychology Today

Today, Jung and his psychology remain even more controversial and confusing than in the first part of the twentieth century, which was dominated by psychoanalysis and its various branches, called depth or psychodynamic psychology.

There are several obstacles to Jungian psychology entering the mainstream of science, particularly in psychiatry and psychology. In general, psychiatrists are seldom trained in depth psychology, and those familiar with Jungian psychology are extremely rare. Psychologists, on the other hand, especially those rooted in behaviorism and neurophysiology, rejected Jung’s concept of the collective unconscious and his approach to the psyche.

The current scientific effort in psychiatry and psychology is to explain the psyche as a pure epiphenomenon of brain function. In contrast, Jung rejected the concept of “biologizing” the psyche. He treated the psyche as a creation of its own, independent of matter.

Another reason for the rejection of Jungian psychology by established science is the introduction of non-causal phenomena like intuition or synchronicity, which collide with the causality on which Western thought is built. As a result, Jungian psychology has an esoteric aura and is considered non-scientific.

Carl Gustav Jung’s Background and Personality

Predestined to swim against the torrent, Jung’s intriguing personality demands acknowledgment in the context of his psychology.

Carl Gustav Jung was an excellently educated man and a productive writer. His interests went beyond his scholarly education, which was in medicine, psychiatry, and psychology. He had vast knowledge of mythology, religion, and philosophy, which he deepened throughout his long life. His native language was German, but he was also fluent in French, English, Latin, and ancient Greek.

Though a rational scientist, he embraced the irrational and esoteric, deeming a solely rational approach to psychology inadequate in a historical context. He had to adhere to the truth as he saw it.

Throughout his life, Jung remained deeply introverted, more interested in the inner world of dreams and images than the outer world of people and events. Since childhood, he possessed a genius for introspection, attentively observing experiences beneath the conscious threshold—experiences of which the great majority of us remain unaware. This gift was derived, at least in part, from the peculiar circumstances of his upbringing.

C.G. Jung’s Biographic Note

Carl Gustav Jung, born on July 26, 1875, in Switzerland’s Thurgau canton, was the son of a village pastor. Being a deeply introverted child and living isolated from his peers in a parish, he read books from his father’s library far beyond the “normal” interests of a boy of his age. He read works by philosophers such as Nietzsche and Kant and literature by Goethe, Schiller, and Shakespeare.

In 1895, Jung began studying medicine in Basel, and in 1900, he took a position at the Burghölzli psychiatric clinic in Zurich under the leading Swiss psychiatrist Eugen Bleuler. During this time, he first encountered Sigmund Freud’s writings. Their friendship started when Jung visited Freud in Vienna in 1907. His research on the Word Association Experiment provided evidence-based support for Freud’s psychoanalytical theory. However, their friendship soured in 1912 with the publication of Jung’s Transformations and Symbols of the Libido, in which Jung expressed different views on the origin of libido.

Jung became renowned as the founder of analytical psychology. Until his death on June 6, 1961, he continued to be highly prolific, publishing numerous works on the psychology of the unconscious as well as on religious and cultural themes. His life’s journey, marked by introspection and exploration, left an indelible mark on the field of psychology.

C.G. Jung’s Early Writings

Before meeting Freud, Jung authored a few publications that laid the foundation of his own psychology, which only partially overlapped with Freud’s analytical theory.

On Psychology and Pathology of So-Called Occult Phenomena

Jung completed his medical studies in 1900 and began specializing in psychiatry, working as an assistant at the University Hospital Burghölzli in Zurich. In 1902, Jung wrote his dissertation titled On the Psychology and Pathology of So-Called Occult Phenomena. The dissertation was inspired by spiritualistic sessions in which he participated during his studies. The medium in the séance was his maternal cousin, Helene Preiswerk, aged 16.

In the dissertation, Jung documented Helene’s trances, observing astonishing changes in her psychological state. While in a trance, Helene displayed a mature personality and spoke in high German, which she was unable to use while conscious. Based on these observations, Jung concluded that the psyche has multiple dimensions, of which consciousness is only a small fraction. These phenomena catalyzed his concept of individuation, developed years later. According to this concept, individuation is a process of self-actualization achieved by uncovering and integrating the unconscious parts of the psyche.

Psychology of Dementia Praecox

Working at the Burghölzli Psychiatric Hospital under Eugen Bleuler, Jung observed patients with schizophrenia and analyzed psychotic phenomena from an analytical perspective. In 1907, he published his observations in his second book, The Psychology of Dementia Praecox, which enhanced his reputation as a research psychiatrist.

Jung’s burning question was: what actually takes place inside the mentally ill? Unlike most psychiatrists before or since, he gave serious attention to what his schizophrenic patients said and did. He demonstrated that their delusions and hallucinations were not simply “mad” but full of psychological meaning.

For instance, he observed an old schizophrenic patient who had spent fifty years in the Burghölzli Psychiatric Hospital. The patient made stitching movements as if sewing shoes. Later, Jung discovered that, before her illness, she had been jilted by a cobbler lover. Jung connected the dots and assumed correctly that the emotional shock triggered her illness, and the stitching movements symbolized her tragic romance.

As a scientist, Jung believed that psychotic phenomena were associated with biochemical neurotoxins circulating in the brain. However, he also understood schizophrenia in psychoanalytic terms as “an introversion of libido.” He considered the libido to be withdrawn from the outer world of reality and invested in the inner world of myth-creation, fantasy, and dreams. The schizophrenic, he maintained, was a dreamer in a waking world.

“I had not met with much sympathy for the ideas expressed in “The Psychology of Dementia Praecox.” In fact, my colleagues laughed at me. But through this book I came to know Freud. He invited me to visit him, and our first meeting took place in Vienna in March 1907. We met at one o’clock in the afternoon and talked virtually without a pause for thirteen hours. Freud was the first man of real importance I had encountered; in my experience up to that time, no one else could compare with him. There was nothing the least trivial in his attitude. I found him extremely intelligent, shrewd, and altogether remarkable.”

C.G. Jung. “Memories, Dreams, Reflections”

Word Association Test

In 1903, Jung, together with his assistant Franz Riklin, started experiments with the word association test. The word association test was first used as a research instrument in 1879 by Francis Galton and later by Emil Kraepelin and Wilhelm Wundt. A standard association test involved timing quick responses to trigger words. Galton, Kraepelin, and Wundt used the test to measure a patient’s cognitive fitness.

All of the previous reserchers were primarily interested in the content and speed of the responses, without being able to identify the reasons for the delays. The concentrated on the positive results and not on the abberations.

Jung’s Unique Approach to Word Association Test

The test was initially developed to evaluate the neurocognitive abilities of patients, focusing on correct and/or quick responses. Jung, however, shifted the focus to the mistakes made during the test, such as prolonged responses or a lack of responses altogether. He discovered that words causing disturbances “touched” the patient’s emotional complexes. Following this logic, Jung correctly assumed that these emotionally charged complexes operated autonomously in the unconscious, blocking the patient’s self-expression, increasing reaction times, or “twisting” their answers.

Jung recognized the significance of this discovery and linked it to Freud’s analytical theory, particularly the mechanism of repression. He sent the test results to Sigmund Freud, who acknowledged them as experimental proof of his theory. In 1907, Jung met Freud in Vienna, marking the beginning of a period of close collaboration and friendship.

The research on the Word Association Test was also the reason for Jung’s invitation to the famous Clark University lecture in 1909.

Developement of C.G. Jung’s Psychology

Befor meeting Freud Jung developed the foundation of his own psychology which only partially overlaped with Freud’s analytical theory. In his autobiography “Memories, Dreams , Reflections” Jung concluded:

“In 1903 I once more took up (Freud’s) “The Interpretation of Dreams” and discovered how it all linked up with my own ideas. What chiefly interested me was the application to dreams of the concept of the repression mechanism… This was important to me because I had frequently encountered repressions in my experiments with word association; in response to certain stimulus words the patient either had no associative answer or was unduly slow in his reaction time. As was later discovered, such a disturbance occurred each time the stimulus word had touched upon a psychic lesion or conflict…

My reading of Freud’s “The Interpretation of Dreams” showed me that the repression mechanism was at work here, and that the facts I had observed were consonant with his theory. Thus, I was able to corroborate Freud’s line of argument. The situation was different when it came to the content of the repression. Here I could not agree with Freud. He considered the cause of the repression to be a sexual trauma. From my practice, however, I was familiar with numerous cases of neurosis in which the question of sexuality played a subordinate part, other factors standing in the foreground for example, the problem of social adaptation, of oppression by tragic circumstances of life, prestige considerations, and so on. Later I presented such cases to Freud; but he would not grant that factors other than sexuality could be the cause. That was highly unsatisfactory to me.”

C.G. Jung. “Memories, Dreams, Reflections”

Reading Jung’s Writings

The complexity of Jung’s ideas, as well as his writing style, is the major entry barrier for those interested in his psychology. His nonlinear writing style reflects his thinking, as he approaches the subject repeatedly, each time from a different angle. Jung never settles for a single formulation but continually redevelops concepts related to a particular context. This approach infuses his work with richness but demands the reader’s utmost mental flexibility.

Reading Jung’s work requires determination. Apart from the long and sometimes reciprocal sentences, the reader must follow Jung from the depths of psychiatric practice to the ivory tower of philosophy and religion. The concept of a collective unconscious and the notion of libido as a driving force for self-realization, expressed through the “circular” descriptions typical of Jung’s writings, make it difficult for many readers to grasp the fundamentals. Another difficulty in understanding his ideas is the vast material provided by Jung about world religions and mythologies.

However, in Jung’s collected works, the reader will find brilliantly formulated and straightforward ideas. The author of this article refers the interested reader to Jung’s early book mentioned earlier: The Psychology of Dementia Praecox, written in 1907, which remains the most sophisticated psychoanalytical interpretation of psychotic phenomena. Additionally, the transcripts of his lectures provide a good understanding of Jung’s psychology, particularly his lectures from 1936 held at Tavistock, UK: Analytical Psychology: Its Theory and Practice (Tavistock Lectures).

Collective Unconscious in C.G. Jung’s Psychology

Carl Gustav Jung disagreed with the idea that humans are born as a “tabula rasa,” a blank slate proposed by ancient philosophers like Aristotle and later, in the 17th century, by René Descartes and John Locke. Instead, Jung introduced the concept of the “collective unconscious.” He described the collective unconscious as an inherited layer of the human psyche, equipped with universal experiences common to all humans. This layer exists beneath the “personal unconscious” of repressed wishes and traumatic memories discovered by Freud.

Jung developed the concept of the collective unconscious based on his own experiences. Even as a child, possessing a remarkable gift for introspection, he realized that there were things in his dreams that came from somewhere beyond himself. During his research as a psychiatrist, he found symbols and images in the delusions and hallucinations of schizophrenic patients that also appeared in myths and fairy tales.

Jung’s Inspiring Dream about the Collective Unconcsious

Typically for Jung, the idea of the collective unconscious was inspired by a dream. He dreamt this dream on his way back to Europe after the famous lectures at Clark University in 1909. He and Freud traveled together on a transatlantic ship and analyzed each other’s dreams. Jung noticed that Freud was not able to understand some of his dreams.

“As I have already said, Freud was able to interpret the dreams I was then having only incompletely or not at all. They were dreams with collective contents, containing a great deal of symbolic material. One in particular was important to me, for it led me for the first time to the concept of the “collective unconscious …”

This was the dream:

I was in a house I did not know, which had two stories. It was “my house.” I found myself in the upper story, where there was a kind of salon furnished with fine old pieces in rococo style. On the walls hung a number of precious old paintings. I wondered that this should be my house, and thought, “Not bad.” But then it occurred to me that I did not know what the lower floor looked like. Descending the stairs, I reached the ground floor. There everything was much older, and I realized that this part of the house must date from about the fifteenth or sixteenth century. The furnishings were medieval; the floors were of red brick. Everywhere it was rather dark. I went from one room to another, thinking, “Now I really must explore the whole house.”

I came upon a heavy door, and opened it. Beyond it, I discovered a stone stairway that led down into the cellar. Descending again, I found myself in a beautifully vaulted room which looked exceedingly ancient. Examining die walls, I discovered layers of brick among the ordinary stone blocks, and chips of brick in the mortar. As soon as I saw this I knew that the walls dated from Roman times.

My interest by now was intense. I looked more closely at the floor. It was of stone slabs, and in one of these I discovered a ring. When I pulled it, the stone slab lifted, and again I saw a stairway of narrow stone steps leading down into the depths. These, too, I descended, and entered a low cave cut into the rock. Thick dust lay on the floor, and in the dust were scattered bones and broken pottery, like remains of a primitive culture. I discovered two human skulls, obviously very old and half disintegrated. Then I awoke…

Then Jung analysed the dream:

It was plain to me that the house represented a kind of image of the psyche that is to say, of my then state of consciousness, with hitherto unconscious additions. Consciousness was represented by the salon. It had an inhabited atmosphere, in spite of its antiquated style. The ground floor stood for the first level of the unconscious. The deeper I went, the more alien and the darker the scene became. In the cave, I discovered remains of a primitive culture, that is, the world of the primitive man within myself, a world which can scarcely be reached or illuminated by consciousness. The primitive psyche of man borders on the life of the animal soul, just as the caves of prehistoric times were usually inhabited by animals before men laid claim to them”.

C.G. Jung. “Memories, Dreams, Reflections”

Dynamics of Transformation and Inner Growth

Jung experienced the unconscious as a living, constant companion of every waking and sleeping moment. For him, the secret of life’s meaning lay in relating to this mysterious power. The first sentence of his autobiography expresses this concern: “My life is the story of the self-realization of the unconscious.”

How can we enable the unconscious to realize itself? By granting it freedom of expression and then examining what it has expressed. Thus, self-realization requires the psyche to turn around on itself and confront what it produces.

In conducting this experiment, Jung experienced himself as split in two—between the conscious subject, who experienced, recorded, and struggled to survive, and the unconscious other, manifesting in the personalities and powers that forced themselves on him. Jung recognized that the psyche is a real and independent entity acting on its own.

For the rest of his life, Jung was preoccupied with the dynamics of personal transformation and growth. He was one of the few psychologists in the twentieth century to maintain that development extends beyond childhood and adolescence, through mid-life, and into old age.

It was this lifelong developmental process that he called individuation, and he believed that it could be brought to its highest fruition if one worked with and confronted the unconscious.

Individuation and the Self

According to Jung, individuation is the ultimate goal of human life, enabling the exploration and realization of the full potential of the unconscious. He believed that the purpose of analytical psychology is to support this process by integrating the Ego (the conscious mind) with the Self (the totality of the psyche).

Individuation should not be confused with ego-centeredness or individualism. To fully grasp the concept, it is essential to understand Jung’s organization of the psyche. In Jungian psychology, the Self represents the totality of personality, encompassing both the conscious and unconscious mind. The Self is superior to the Ego, as it connects to the collective unconscious and holds the shared knowledge of our species. Exploring the Self helps the Ego in achieving its most complete expression of individuality freeing it from superficial or false identities.

Individuation in Course of Life

The first half of life is typically outward-focused, revolving around education, forming a family, and attaining social and professional stability. In the second half of life, attention shifts inward. Under favorable circumstances, this inward focus allows the individuation process to begin and unfold. Individuation is a journey of personal growth and development, achieved by integrating the unconscious aspects of the psyche. Its goal is to enhance self-awareness, self-realization, and emotional maturity.

At its simplest, individuation involves separating oneself from collective influences, such as societal expectations and cultural norms, to discover and embrace one’s true personality, thus reaching full potential.

Carl Jung exemplified his own theories. In middle age, he underwent a transformative process, which, in typical Jungian fashion, was heralded by a dream. In this dream, the Germanic hero Siegfried was killed. Jung interpreted this as a sign that he was ready for inner transformation. Over time, the aloof and prickly young man evolved into the wise figure of his later years, often referred to as the “old wise man from Küssnacht.”

Dyscoveries of Marquis De Puységur and Jungian Self

One century earlier the Frech scientist Marquis De Puységur described his experience with a hypnotized subject [Victor], a peasant from his estate, who showed particular abilities while being hypnotized, he didn’t possess in the conscious state.

Puységur described his observations in following words:  

“When [Victor] is in the magnetized state, he is no longer a naïve peasant who can barely speak a sentence. He is someone whom I do not know how to name (1784, p.35) .… He is teaching me the conduct I must follow. … And it is a peasant, the narrowest and most limited in this locality, that teaches me this. When he is in crisis [hypnotic state], I know no one as profound, prudent, or clear-cited (1784, pp. 32-3).

”Memoirs pour servir à l’histoire et à l’établissement du magnétisme animal (1784)

Jung who dedicated a big part of his research to the exploration of the “Self,” came to the same conclusion as his predecessor De Puységur, that the depth of human psyche contains a deeper autonomous being Jung called the “Old Wise Man” or the “One Million Years Old Self”.

Jung’s Theory of Archetypes

The name of Carl Gustav Jung is commonly associated with the collective unconscious and the archetypes.

According to Jung, the collective unconscious contains psychic entities, he called the “archetypes”. The archerypes are constellating entities of the collective unconcious.

Jung saw archetypes as patterns of behaviour, something similar to “dry river bets.” The archetypes are like blueprints for human development. They get activated in particular situations or stages of life. Archetypes are evident in stories, art, myths, and dreams. While archetypes form a common ground for human experiences, individuals interpret them uniquely, shaped by culture and personal history.

Jung developed the theory of archetypes based on his childhood experiences, dream interpretation, and in-depth analysis of his patients. He opposed the doctrine of empiricism established in Western culture by the British philosopher John Locke. Contrary to empiricism, Jung proposed the revolutionary idea that children are not borne as “blank slates” (Tabula Rasa). He believed that every human at the time of his birth is already equipped with inherited patterns of behaviour, the archetypes. The archetyps are the forming entities of the stored knowledge of our species, called by Jung “the collective unconscious.”

The Nature of Archetypes

Archetypesy are collective in the sense that they embody the general characteristics of a thing, but they are also implicit in its specific manifestations. The human fingerprint, for example, is instantly recognizable for what it is on account of its unmistakable configuration of contours and whorls. Yet every fingerprint has a configuration unique to its owner. Archetypes similarly combine the universal with the individual, the general with the unique; in that they are common to all humanity, yet nevertheless manifest themselves in every human being in a peculiar way. Archetypes actively seek their actualization in the personality and the behaviour of the individual, as the life cycle unfolds in the context of the environment.

Archetyps in the Ligh of Darwinism

The other aspect is that proposing the idea of archetypes and collective unconscious Jung contradicted the foundation of contemporary science, Darwinism. The theory of Darwin claims that the information can be passed from one generation to the next via genes. Darwinism proclaimed the process of natural selection, on the survival of the fittest as the leading force of evolution. According to Darwin the genetically transferred characteristics with evolutionary benefits will give their offspring a higher chance to survive while those with less favorable traces will be eliminated over time.

Jung instead proposed that patterns of behaviour or images occurring in members of one generation could be passed genetically to the next generation. Such “sideways transition” of survival strategies and memories is hard to comprehend. It undermines today’s scientific dogma. This theory of acquired characteristics, originally proposed by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829) was and still is scientifically discredited. 

Difficulties with Scientific Proof of Jung’s Theory

The other reason that the archetype theory barley found scientific resonance was that Jung wasn’t able to present enough evidence-based proof supporting his theory. He provided only one description of so called of the “phallus man”, a schizophrenic patient who hallucinated a tube or a phallus hanging down from the son, which by changing its direction influenced the wind. An identical content was described in an old Greek manuscript referring to a Mithraic ritual which Jung discovered years later.

The patient, a poorly educated man, never could possess knowledge of the script and such ritual. However, those who reject the archetypal hypothesis remain unimpressed by the discovery of parallel themes in myths derived from different parts of the world, maintaining that these can be explained just as well by cultural diffusion and not by innate predisposition.

C.G. Jung’s Archetypes. The Re-Discovered Theory

Why Jung’s theory of archetypes keeps being rediscovered by other scientific disciplines but neglected by the psychology? Why it had been neglected at the time Jung proposed it, and why it’s neglected today?

There are many answers to this question. Throughout Jung’s mature lifetime and even more today the researchers in university departments of psychology were and are in the grip of behaviourism. They follow the concept of empiricism seeing the individual as a “tabula rasa” whose development starts first after the birth and is based on environmental factors.

Jung’s writing didn’t present his theory in a clear form due to his weakness of passing his ideas in complicated writings. His book “Transformations and Symbols of the Libido” in which he first presented the idea of the collective unconscious mentioning also the “primordial images”, as he initially called archetypes, was so densely written and packed with mythological examples that only the most determined reader could go through.

Currency of Archetypal Theory

In the past decennia different disciplines came to similar results as Jung but without reference to him. Within the area of linguistics Noam Chomsky proposed a theory explaining the phenomenon that every infant can learn any language spoken on the Earth. He proved that despite different languages with different grammar the ability to learn a language is based on a deeper-rooted structure, an “universal grammar,” a concept identical with Jung’s archetyps.

Within the area of anthropology Claude Levi-Strauss, a French anthropologist proposed the existence of an unconscious structure holding it responsible for all human customs.

The new discipline called sociobiology proved that the patterns of behaviour typical for all species, including humans, depend on genetically anchored response strategies designed to maximize the survival chances of the individual. Sociobiology also holds that the psycho-social development in individual members of a species based on epigenetic rules (epi = upon, genesis =development; i.e. rules upon which development proceeds).

All mentioned concepts refrain the archetypal hypothesis proposed by Jung decades earlier.  

IRMs: Innate Releasing Mechanisms

Very similar ideas to Jung’s have become current in the last forty years a relatively new science of ethology (branch of behavioralism which studies animals in their natural habitats). Every animal species possesses a repertoire of behaviours. This behavioural repertoire pendent on structures which evolution has built into the central nervous system of the species.

Ethologists call these structures innate releasing mechanisms, or IRMs. Each IRM is primed to become active when an appropriate stimulus—called a sign stimulus—is encountered in the environment. When such a stimulus appears, the innate mechanism released, and the animal responds with a characteristic pattern of behaviour which is adapted, through evolution, to the situation. Thus, a mallard duck becomes amorous at the sight of the handsome green head of a mallard drake, the green head being the sign stimulus which releases in the duck’s central nervous system the innate mechanism responsible for the characteristic patterns of behaviour associated with courtship in the duck.

The founder of IRM concept was Konrad Lorenz, who identified six characteristics of fixed action patterns. The IRM’s are:

• stereotyped
• complex
• species-characteristic
• released
• triggered
• independent of experience

IRMs and Archetypes

This is very much how Jung described archetypes in humans. An archetype, he said, is not “an inherited idea” but rather “an inherited mode of functioning”, corresponding to the inborn way in which the chick emerges from the egg, the birds build their nests, and eels find their way to the Bermuda’s. In other words, it is a “pattern of behaviour”. In a sense, ethology and Jungian psychology can be viewed as two sides of the same coin.

The Jungian concept of the collective unconscious assumes the existence of a blueprint for human life consisting of archetypes being activated in particular circumstances.  

The Ego and the Persona in Jungian Psychology

The collective unconscious and the archetypes are the corner stones of C.G. Jung’s psychology.

Carl Gustav Jung identified four primary archetypes: the Persona, the Shadow, the Anima/Animus, and the Self.

In this article we describe the interplay between the Ego, Persona, and Shadow.

The Ego in the Analytical Psychology

The Ego is the centre of our consciousness trough which we define ouerselves as individuals using the terms “I” or “Me”. It represents our sense of identity, that we still feel ourselves at 70 to be exactly the same person we were at 7.

The Ego complex emerges out of the Self in the course of the early childhood. The process resembles the separation of the moon from the earth when the latter was in its early stage. The Ego remains linked to the Self by, what Jung have called, the Ego-Self axis. The stability of the personality depends on this axis.

Ego-Consciousness

Jung never made a clear distinction between the terms “Ego” and “Consciousness”, using them interchangeably and sometimes together as “Ego-Consciousness”.

“Although we experience the ego as the continuing centre of our existence it is, in fact, merely the executive of the Self. Our consciousness does not create itself – it wells up from unknown depths. In childhood it awakens gradually, and all through life it wakes each morning out of the depths of sleep from an unconscious condition. It is like a child that is born daily out of the primordial womb of the unconscious”

(CWXI, para. 391)

Again and again, Jung stresses the dependency of Ego-Consciousness on the continuing vitality of the Self:

“The ego stands to the self as the moved to the mover, or as object to subject, because the determining factors which radiate out from the self surround the ego on all sides and are therefore superordinate to it, the self, like the unconscious, is an a priori existent out of which the ego evolves“

CWXI, para. 391

Persona, the Conformity Archetype     

The concept of the persona is Jung’s significant contribution of Analytical Psychology.

Jung coined the term “Persona” referring to the masks used in the ancient Greek theater. Such masks worn by actors exaggerated facial features helping convey emotions. In the large outdoor theaters the masks made it easier for the audience to see and understand the emotions and expressions of the characters, even from a distance.

Persona is like a façade of a building. Through the persona we codify ourselves in a form which we hope will prove acceptable to others and ourselves.

Jung on persona:

“It has sometimes been referred to as the “social archetype” or the “conformity archetype”, for on it depends the success of one’s adaptation to society. There is always some element of pretence about the persona, for it is a kind of shop window in which we do display our best wares; … One could say, with a little exaggeration, that the persona is which in reality one is not, but which oneself as well as others think is”

CWIX. i, para. 221

Forming a Persona

The persona begins to form in the early childhood. Building a persona is a process of integrating into the personality the acceptable traits. Children conform to the wishes and expectations of parents, peers, and teachers. They quickly learn that certain attitudes and behaviours are acceptable and rewarded with approval. On the other hand, the unacceptable behaviours result in punishment or the withdrawal of love. The socially undesirable aspects are relegated to the personal unconscious, forming the shadow complex. The persona is the mostly conscious or easily consciously accessible side of our psyche.

Psychoanalytically, Persona is situated between the Ego and the Super-Ego and is strongly identity-forming. Persona is the result of identification, internalization, introjection, but also of observational learning and conscious imitation. Its development unfolds dramatically during puberty. However, even later, throughout life, persona undergoes changes.

Positive and Negative Aspects of Persona

Persona has both positive and negative sides. The protective function of persona gards the ego coherence against excessive hurt, shame, or threat. A well-developed persona supports self-esteem and allows a sovereign social interactions. The confidence-enhancing effect of persona is apparent, for example, in wearing uniforms or academic titles.

However, the uncritical adoption of persona without self-reflection can lead to a neurosis. Often, this strong identification is defensively developed to primarily fend off underlying existential uncertainties. Authoritarian or highly ideological groups, like the fashism, offer their persona image to those lacking ego stability, seeking a protective framework.

On the other hand a weak interest in the external world and limited identification with the persona are not without danger. They often lead to a “false life,” where the roles played are far from who one is or wants to be.

The Persona and the Individuation

The persona may stand in opposition to individual’s inherent drive for individuation. Becoming “who we are” may sometimes take a different direction from becoming “what others want you to be,” with conflicts being inevitable. The well-established awareness and the sufficiently developed persona is “a bridge to the world,” necessary in the individuation process.

Ideally, we develop a flexible, adaptable, yet consistent persona in good alignment with ourselves, avoiding radical identification. In the process of individuation, it is sometimes necessary to relinquish previously valued persona aspects, i.e., to detach oneself from collective expectations.

C.G. Jung’s Shadow Archetype

The concept of the “shadow,” as introduced by Carl Gustav Jung, represents an essential part of our unconscious, comprising disowned, shameful, or rejected aspects of ourselves that are not acceptable to our “persona.”

Unwanted thoughts and feelings persist as powerful, dynamic complexes that accompany us wherever we go, like a dark companion that follows our every step—just like a shadow.

Much of the time, we manage to ignore it, but it has an unsettling way of resurfacing, often manifesting as xenophobic aggression toward others.

Jung wrote:

“Unfortunately there can be no doubt that man is, on the whole, less good than he imagines himself or wants to be. Everyone carries a shadow, and the less it is embodied in the individual’s conscious life, the blacker and denser it is. At all counts, it forms an unconscious snag, thwarting our most well-meant intentions.”

Coining the Term “Shadow”

Carl Gustav Jung coined the term “shadow,” associating it with our own antisocial complex. He felt that the term “shadow” was appropriate for the disowned sub-personality, as it represents something “shady,” hidden away in the dark lumber-room of the unconscious.

In dreams, the shadow often appears as a sinister or threatening figure of the same sex as the dreamer and is frequently portrayed as a member of a different nation, color, or race. There is usually something alien or hostile about it, giving rise to powerful feelings of distrust, anger, or fear.

Jung created the term “shadow” based on his dream:

“I had a dream which both frightened and encouraged me. It was night in some unknown place, and I was making slow and painful headway against a mighty wind. Dense fog was flying along everywhere. I had my hands cupped around a tiny light which threatened to go out at any moment. Everything depended on my keeping this little light alive.

Suddenly I had the feeling that something was coming up behind me. I looked back, and saw a gigantic black figure following me. But at the same moment I was conscious, in spite of my terror, that I must keep my little light going through night and wind, regardless of all dangers.

When I awoke I realized at once that the figure was a “specter of the Brocken,” my own shadow on the swirling mists, brought into being by the little light I was carrying. I knew, too, that this little light was my consciousness, the only light I have. My own understanding is the sole treasure I possess, and the greatest. Though infinitely small and fragile in comparison with the powers of darkness, it is still a light, my only light.”

C.G. Jung. “Memories, Dreams, Reflections”

Shadow’s Archetypal Nature

C.G. Jung saw the shadow as a complex—which means a cluster of traits bound together by common affects—which, like all complexes, has an archetypal core. From early childhood, individuals absorb implicit and explicit messages about what is acceptable regarding their emotions, and behaviors. Qualities and impulses deemed unacceptable are pushed into the shadow, shaping long-term attitudes toward these disowned parts. The more negatively these qualities are viewed by parents and society, the more hostile individuals may become toward these aspects of themselves.

The biological importance of the shadow is evident in its manifestation across all social species. Detecting the enemy is crucial for an individual’s survival, as is the ability to distinguish between friend and foe from the earliest possible age. Thus, the shadow is one of the most significant archetypes.

Shadow. The Archetype of Enemy

The core atributes of the shadow is the archetype of the Enemy, the Predator, or the Evil Strange. There are two important sources of the complex: cultural and familial repression.

The influence of shadow becomes apparent during the first year of life. Just as the infant will show delight at being approached by its mother, so it will also show signs of wariness and withdrawal when approached by a stranger. By the second year, this xenophobic propensity has ripened into expressions of full-blown fear and hostility. Both attachment and xenophobia are evidently the product of innate dispositions because they are apparent in all infants wherever they born and under whatever circumstances they are brought up.

“Everyone carries a shadow, and the less it is embodied in the individual’s conscious life, the blacker and denser it is. If an inferiority is conscious, one always has a chance to correct it. Furthermore, it is constantly in contact with other interests, so that it is continually subjected to modifications. But if it is repressed and isolated from consciousness, it never gets corrected, and is liable to burst forth suddenly in a moment of unawareness. At all counts, it forms an unconscious snag, thwarting our most well-meant intentions”

C.G. Jung, Collected Works 11, p. 76, para. 131

Personal and Collective Shadow

The shadow can be understood in two dimensions: personal and collective. The personal shadow includes individual experiences and traits that are unique to each person, often perceived as undesirable or unacceptable. Beneath this lies the collective shadow, which consists of the darker aspects of society and culture, encompassing behaviors and practices that are collectively disowned or deemed unacceptable.

The projection of the collective shadow materialized in the figure of the Devil or witches. The collective shadow is inborn and present in every society shering the same languaed, country, religion or culture. The collective shadow creatts in every meber of such group feelings of conscious or unconscious hatred against the out-group, leading to dehumanization, crime and wars.

Projection of the Shadow

The shadow is most often encountered through projection—a psychological mechanism in which individuals attribute their own unacceptable qualities to others, thereby defending themselves against recognizing these traits within themselves. For example, if someone frequently notices and harshly judges greed in others, it may indicate an unacknowledged relationship with greed within themselves. Recognizing these projections can lead to profound personal and collective insights while reducing judgmental attitudes toward others.

Shadow projection, however, poses a significant threat to social and international peace. It allows individuals and groups to dehumanize those they perceive as enemies, turning them into devils or vermin whom they feel justified in hating, persecuting, or even exterminating.

Unscrupulous leaders often exploit this psychological mechanism of shadow projection on a large scale. Adolf Hitler, for instance, repeatedly described Jews as “Untermenschen” (subhumans). Through his skillful propaganda machine, he incited enough Germans to project their shadow onto the Jewish population, ultimately facilitating the Holocaust. This same psychological process underlies all pogroms, ethnic cleansing, and wars, as it enables entire societies to justify acts of violence against perceived outsiders.

Shadow in Culture

Cultural influences shape everything, politically, this includes views about groups seen as threats to one’s own group (such as a nation or tribe), and theologically, which includes ideas about evil (like Satan, the Devil, or Hell). Inevitably, the shadow develops qualities opposite to the “sugar-coated” characteristics of the persona.

The coexistence of these two sharply contrasting personalities within a single individual is as evident in literature as it is in real life. Robert Louis Stevenson’s novel, Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, portrays the same man as a respectable physician at times and a monstrous figure at others. Stevenson was long fascinated by the idea that human personalities reflect the interplay between good and evil. Other examples include popular TV personalities who appear compassionate and warm on screen but turn into hysterical, domineering figures in their private lives.

Shadow in Religions

To truly understand human nature, we must recognize that evil is a real and essential part of ourselves, our society, and even our religion. Christianity, however, has idealized the image of God, viewing Him only as a benevolent, all-good being. Traditional Christian theology, by emphasizing only the good aspect of God, denies the existence of the shadow and instead attributes it to a separate entity—the devil. Carl Jung challenged this view, using the figure of Yahweh to illustrate a God who embodies both benevolent and terrifying aspects reflecting the full range of divine complexity.

This raises an important question: Can Christianity confront its shadow, which has contributed to events such as the Crusades, two world wars, and the Holocaust?

The Virgin and Child with Saint Anne

The right side of the image features an oil painting by Leonardo da Vinci, “The Virgin and Child with Saint Anne.” It depicts Saint Anne, her daughter, the Virgin Mary, and the infant Jesus.

The left painting is a charcoal drawing titled “The Virgin and Child with Saint Anne and Saint John the Baptist” by the same artist. It closely resembles the original oil painting. The drawing portrays the Virgin Mary seated on the lap of her mother, Saint Anne, while holding the Christ Child. To the right, Christ’s young cousin, John the Baptist, stands.

Both compositions share similarities, featuring the same protagonists and a comparable arrangement where the Virgin Mary sits on her mother’s lap. However, in the left drawing, the woman on the right might represent Saint Anne, or she could be a reflection of the Virgin Mary’s face with a more enigmatic, even malicious expression, representing her shadow.

Artistic expressions occur unconsciously, so Leonardo da Vinci instinctively sensed the looming problem in Christian dogma presenting the juxtaposition of two faces—one with a loving, maternal smile and the other malicious and aggressive.

Intergration of Shadow in Jungian Psychology

The shadow is not merely a repository of negative qualities but also a space where unexplored potentials and hidden resources reside. Recognizing these shadow aspects allows us to access vital sources of energy, enriching personal growth.

Analytical psychology suggests that, through therapy, one can explore the potential of the shadow. By tracing its origins and gaining a deeper understanding of one’s true needs, a person can begin to make new choices and adopt healthier behaviors. Such deep introspection into one’s own psyche also helps reduce feelings of resentment, fosters acceptance of personal imperfections, and promotes greater alignment with one’s true desires.

Integrating the shadow involves acknowledging and accepting these hidden aspects, leading to a more whole and balanced personality. This, in turn, enables healthier relationships with both oneself and others. It encourages personal responsibility and a reevaluation of one’s values rather than projecting one’s negative thoughts, and inferiority feelings onto others.

“Everyone carries a shadow, and the less it is embodied in the individual’s conscious life, the blacker and denser it is. If an inferiority is conscious, one always has a chance to correct it. Furthermore, it is constantly in contact with other interests, so that it is continually subjected to modifications. But if it is repressed and isolated from consciousness, it never gets corrected, and is liable to burst forth suddenly in a moment of unawareness. At all counts, it forms an unconscious snag, thwarting our most well-meant intentions” C.G.Jung, Collected Works 11, p. 76, para. 131

Carl Gustav Jung’s Anima and Animus Archetypes

Archetypes, as conceived by Jung, are deeply rooted, universal patterns of behaviour constallating the collective unconscious. They are not directly observable but manifest in symbols, dreams, and myths.

Carl Gustav Jung, the pioneer of depth psychology, described archetyps as “active living dispositions, patterns of human behavior” that manifest in similar way in various cultures and times. They represent common human experiences and express our psychological heritage. They form the foundation of our understanding of human behavior and interpersonal relationships. Archetyps are universal for all humanity. They express themselves trough symbols in myths, dreams, and cultural narratives. These patterns deeply anchored in the human psyche provide a unique access to the collective and personal themes that shape our lives.

The Concept of Anima and Animus

The archetype of anima is the central concept in Jung’s analytical psychology, through which Jung refers to the unconscious “soul image” of the woman in the psyche of the man. Animus is the complementary concept to Anima, the unconscious masculine image in the woman.

The Anima image has formed as a result of all the experiences that man has had with the females throughout human development. It is a type of experience that comes from ancient times and is stored in the collective unconscious.

The archetype of Anima becomes experienceable by a man trough Anima projection onto specific female figures who personify her or aspects of her. Various manifestations of Anima figures can be found in fairy tales, myths, literature, and religions, such as the saint, the witch, the mother-goddess, etc. The respective object of Anima projection exerts an emotional fascination or even a possesion on the affected man. Jung understands the anima projection as a call to recognize the unintegrated female soul aspects symbolized in the projection.

The integration of Anima and Animus

Jung describes the integration of the Anima as a crucial task in the personality development of man. Due to its potential to liberate man to his wholeness (Self), Jung also calls the Anima the archetype of life.

Jung also found that in practice both anima and animus act in dreams in the imagination as mediators of the unconscious to the ego, helping for inner as well as outer adaptation. He described it as ‘soul-images’ and the ‘not-I’, for they are experienced as something mysterious and numinous, possessing great power.

The more unconscious the anima or animus are, the more likely they can be projected. Projection of anima into women and the animus into the man are responsible for the experience of falling in love. For this reason, Jung called the contra sexual complex “projection-making factor”.

C.G.Jung on Anima

Man carries within him the eternal image of the woman, not the of this or that woman, but a definite feminine image. This image is fundamentally unconscious, a hereditary factor of primordial – .’ (Cw XVII, Para. 338).

‘Woman is compensated by a masculine element and therefore her unconscious has so to speak, a masculine Ft… . And accordingly I have called the projection-making factor in women the animus. . . The animus corresponds to the paternal just as the anima corresponds to the maternal Eros’ (CW IX. ii, para.28).

Jung even goes so far as to declare that ‘the character of the anima can be deduced from that of the persona’ because ‘everything that should normally be in the outer attitude, but is conspicuously absent, will invariably be found in the inner attitude. This is a fundamental rule… (CWVI, Para. 806)

C.G. Jung and Archetypal Neurosis

The Homo Sapiens species spent 99.5% of its time in small groups as hunters and gatherers. Anthropologist Robin Fox suggests that the strength of such groups was around forty individuals including 6 to 10 adult males, twice as many females, and the rest being children and adolescents. Group members shared the same values, roles, customs, rituals, and religion.

Our body and psyche are well prepared to live in such small groups as hunters and gatherers passing the African savannah.

In his book “The tribal imagination: Civilization and the savage mind,” Fox emphasises how the human behaviour reveals traces of our tribal roots, and how this evolutionary heritage limits our adaptation to life in technocratic societies.

Neurosis a result of archetypal frustration

The frustration of instinctive life forms, referred to as “archetypes” by Jung, leads to the development of archetypal neurosis, and in its effect to distinct psychiatric illnesses.

Archetypes represent an unconscious developmental plan for an individual’s life. The themes of modern human neuroses, especially anxiety, have little to do with modern life and are mostly archaic in nature.

An individual psychologically equipped for life in such groups who is born into modern times experiences a literal shock when encountering today’s way of life. Such cultural shock happened to the Ik people who lived as hunters and gatherers in Uganda on 40,000 km². After their relocation to a barracks settlement and attempts to teach them, agriculture led to the complete breakdown of their community.

The adaptation to such living conditions, which the Western World took millennia to achieve, was expected to happen within a generation. The members of the Ik community quickly became demoralized, developing anxiety and depression. They started to behave with psychopathic indifference toward their children and partners.

Similar developments were also observed among North and South American indigenous tribes in their confrontation with western civilization.

Archetypal neuroses in modern society

There are many situations we are exposed to in modern life resembling literarily or metaphorically dangerous or frightening circumstances from the past.

Claustrophobia

The fear of enclosed spaces, called claustrophobia, has an archetypal basis. It is an echo of the anxiety developed by our ancestors trapped in a cave with a lion approaching, leaving no spase for escape.

Claustrophobia, a form of neurosis happens when a person feels trapped in a “dead end” situation. In modern life, such “dead ends” are metaphorical. This can happen to a person stuck in a job while being dependent on regular income. This can also happen to a mother who must sacrifice her autonomy (i.e. desire for personal development), for the sake of her child. In such situation the higher values keep her trapped in the “prison” of family duties under the “tyranny” of her child.

Agoraphobia

It’s a fear of open spaces. Agoraphobia may stem from an archetypal experience of being in an open savannah with no trees nearby for safety.

Acrophobia, fear of heights

may be explained by the fact that our species primarily lived in tree canapés.

Symptoms of Archetypal Neurosis

The prehistoric human trapped in a dead end either escaped or was killed by the lion. The modern human can be stuck in such a situation for days, weeks, months, and years. This leads to permanent stress with overstimulation of the adrenergic system. The consequences are the so-called “civilization diseases”. The ongoing stress causes stomach ulcers, high blood pressure, obesity and diabetes, with their consequences such as heart attack or stroke.

The stress alleviates the person’s frustration triggering a compensation/reward through cigarette consumption, uncontrolled eating, and not least of all, alcohol, and drugs consumption. The greater the suffering, the more extreme the consumption of such substances, and the more extreme the substances themselves (hard drugs).

The English psychiatrist, John Bowlby, defined the basic principles of psychopathology very precisely: Psychopathology arises when an individual’s life circumstances either partially or completely prevent the development of their internal needs. Bowlby observed the following regularity: the further an individual’s circumstances deviate from the evolutionarily established optimum under which they grew up, the higher the likelihood of pathological development.

Root Causes of Archetypal Neurosis

Against this background, some developments of modern society that frustrate the archetypal development of an individual are worth mentioning:

1.           Dissolution of the model of the extended family and loss of contact within the community, especially in urban areas.

2.           Instability of the family due to divorce and separation, including the increase of single-parent households.

3.           Inadequate maternal care for the child due to their employment.

4.           Loss of myth and inflation of religion.

5.           Loss of contact with nature, natural processes such as the changing of the seasons in nature itself.

It is not to be overlooked that the more pronounced these developments become, the greater the number of neuroses, psychoses, and addictions.

Fulfillment of Archetypal Needs

Evidence such as this illustrates a model of psychopathology. Mental health of developing individuals depends on meeting their archetypal needs. Without fulfilling such condition individuals get mentally ill.

This formulation leads to two fundamental questions:

1.           What are the archetypal needs of the developing individual?

2.           What environments – physical or social – guarantee their fulfilment?

These questions, it seems, are the main questions that psychology and psychiatry of the 21st century must address.

Carl Gustav Jung’s Typology

C.G. Jung’s explored both, the universal and the individual aspects of human psychy. Jung assumed that people share a common psychological foundation for perceiving and responding to the world, both externally and internally.

In 1921 Jung published a bestseller book, “Psychological Types.”

The human typology must answer fundamental questions: First, what are the essential components of this individual psychological equipment? Secondly, how do individuals differ in using these components to establish their way of adapting to reality?

History of Typology

Throughout history, various typologies have emerged, spanning from ancient times to the present day. Interestingly, these typologies often consist of four distinct categories. It seems that the human mind naturally gravitates towards organizing concepts into tetradic structures. This inclination towards grouping can be likened to the way a magnetic compass provides orientation.

In the fifth century BC, the Greek philosopher Empedocles proposed a tetrad of elements – earth, air, fire, and water – governed by the archetypal duality of love and Strife. Similarly, around the same era, four primary qualities were delineated: hot, cold, wet, and dry, forming another tetrad of opposites. Aristotle’s four blood types and Hippocrates’ four humors also fit this pattern.

These ancient classification systems found contemporary interpretations in Rorschach’s “Theory of Types” (1921) and Kretschmer’s “Physic and Character” (1921). Around this time, Carl Jung sought to elucidate his disagreements with Freud and to reconcile his sense of uniqueness with humanity at large. To achieve this, he delved into an extensive investigation of historical conflicts and examined distinctions made by philosophers and poets, like Nietzsche’s contrast between the Apollonian and Dionysian.

Origins of C.G. Jung’s typology

The history of Jung’s typology theory began in 1912 with his rupture from Sigmund Freud. Jung embarked on a path towards developing his independent psychology. Since 1909, in his practice on Lake Zurich, he had been treating various cases of psychological disorders. Among his patients was Edith McCormick, daughter of oil magnate John D. Rockefeller. She felt such a connection with Jung that she used her father’s fortune to establish the Psychological Club Zurich in 1916. Here, ideas were exchanged and debates took place in a small circle.

Although Jung had carried the notion of psychological types within him for some time, his thoughts began to flourish in the following years. It remains unclear to what extent other prominent figures in the club can claim credit for this; there was significant exchange of ideas with Basel psychiatrist Hans Schmid, who was working on a similar theory. “Psychological Types” was published 1921.

Typology and Psychology

This typology profoundly affects philosophy and psychology, where conflicts and contradictions often stem from differing attitudes. Representatives of the extraverted type find the abstract, unrealistic thoughts of introverts incomprehensible, while introverts look down upon the superficial, arbitrary “slavery to facts” of their counterparts. There’s no neutral standpoint to prove one attitude’s superiority over the other; they must be regarded as entirely equal.

Persistently clinging to the political-ideological dogma of equality among all humans, rather than acknowledging equal rights, leads inevitably to tyranny. It ignores the fundamental differences between attitude and function types.

In essence, “Psychological Types” is a compilation. The common thread through various texts is the “type problem.” Jung places this concept in diverse contexts, examining it in poetry, ancient and medieval intellectual history, modern philosophy, and other aspects. The sheer volume of these meticulously detailed side notes somewhat overshadows the central chapter, “General Description of the Types,” placed toward the book’s rear. It is advisable to begin here or even tackle the section “Definitions,” further back, to grasp the foundational knowledge needed to understand other texts.

C.G. Jung’s Two Atitudes

“Psychological Types” established Carl Gustav Jung as an independent thinker. It dissected the categorical distinction between extraverted and introverted personality types, elucidating their orientations toward self and the world.

The terms “extraversion” and “introversion” roughly signify an outward-turning and inward-turning orientation, respectively. What is being turned or directed in this context is the psychic energy called libido. If a person predominantly has an extraverted attitude, the libido is directed outward, flowing toward the external world. In contrast, if they have a predominantly introverted attitude, libido is withdrawn from the external world and benefits the subject. In the latter case, the individual lives more internally. One can speak in general terms of an extraverted or introverted type.

Extravertsion versus Introversion

The social demands of a scientifically and objectively oriented society strongly favor the extraverted attitude. This preference is even more pronounced for the corresponding irrational types of sensation and intuition, as they appear virtually useless and out of step with modern objectivity beliefs. They dwell entirely in their own subjectivity, resisting external interpretation.

Jung’s exploration of these function types provides valuable insight into the complexities of human psychology. It underscores the fluidity and adaptability of the human psyche, emphasizing the importance of acknowledging and integrating the various aspects of one’s mental landscape. Recognizing the interplay between introversion and extraversion, rationality and irrationality, and the dynamic nature of psychological functions, we gain a deeper understanding of the intricacies of human behaviour and the potential for self-awareness and personal growth.

The book introduced four psychological functions – thinking, feeling, sensing, and intuiting -further subdividing personality.

Four Functions

In addition to the two attitude types, there are four fundamental psychic functions: thinking, feeling, sensation, and intuition. These functions represent the manifestations of libido. They can be viewed as activities of the psyche, describing how an individual processes sensory perceptions or psychic contents in their consciousness. The origin of these fourfold ways of perceiving the world is likely physiological.

The world, in terms of what is given to our experience, can be categorized into four aspects based on how it is presented to us.

Thinking corresponds to a biological adaptation to the logical aspect of the world, aligning with the fact that the world is logically organized in certain aspects (causality, space, time).

Intuition corresponds to viewing the world in terms of its possibilities.

Sensation relates to the world as sensually given

Feeling apprehends the world through the lens of personal pleasure or displeasure.

In most individuals, one of these functions typically dominates, meaning the ego identifies strongly with it. The dominant function is more highly differentiated, while the other functions may be neglected and even atrophied over time. These neglected functions fall below the threshold of consciousness into the unconscious.

Introversion in Contemporary Society

These introverted function types face challenges in contemporary society, where the preference leans heavily toward extraversion and objective rationality. This societal shift places the introverted types, especially the irrational ones like introverted sensing and introverted intuition, in a position where they may seem out of touch or irrelevant. Their existence is rooted in subjective experiences that resist external interpretation.

Jung’s exploration of these introverted function types highlights their unique qualities and the challenges they face in a society that values objectivity and extroversion. However, it’s crucial to recognize that these types are not inferior but rather different and complementary. They offer a necessary counterbalance to the prevailing societal norms, contributing to the tension that is essential for both individual growth and the preservation of society.

In all these cases, Jung discerned a fundamental distinction between extraverted and introverted attitudes. These dichotomies, often grounded in tetradic structures, reflect humanity’s enduring quest to categorize and understand the complexities of the human psyche. Whether through ancient elements or modern psychological theories, our minds persistently seek patterns and divisions to make sense of the world.

The contrast between introverted and extraverted types is not a modern invention but has intrigued thinkers throughout history. It surfaces in philosophical conflicts from antiquity and the Middle Ages, such as the Universalist debate.

The Unifying Symbol

Jung’s profound insight into the human psyche goes further by introducing the concept of a unifying symbol. The human psyche naturally seeks wholeness. Bridging the categorical differences between opposing attitudes and functions requires a higher, unifying element.

In Chinese philosophy, the concept of Tao represents the middle path that harmonizes the dualities of Yin and Yang.

Here, introverted realists believed ideas and concepts held more significance than concrete objects, while extraverted nominalists asserted, “All mere words, only concrete things are real!”

Jungian Dream Analysis

For millenia dreams interpretation has been a subject of fascination and mystery, with various hypothesis and theories attempting to unravel their enigmatic nature.

Sigmund Freud, a pioneer in psychoanalysis, assumed that dreams emerge from the amalgamation of recent events and childhood memories. Freud saw dreams as the “wish fulfilment” vehicle and the guardians of sleep.

However, it was Carl Gustav Jung who suggested that dreams don’t only reflect personal experiences. He saw dreaming as a space where our individual’s existence gets connected with the evolutionary past of our species.

In this article we shade light on C.G. Jung’s psychology and dream analysis and its implications for modern psychology.

Jungian dreams analysis in light of current research

C.G. Jung’s concept of dreams accessing an ancient stratum of human experience was initially met with scepticism. However, in the past decades Jungian dreams analysis has been supported by growing evidence based scientific research.

One of the most important was the discovery REM sleep by Eugene Aserinsky and Nathaniel Kleitman. The show the correlation between dreaming and REM sleep. However, it was the French neuroscientist, Michel Jouvet, who mapped out the brain structures that generate REM sleep. He compared the discovery to finding “a new continent in the brain”.

Dreams and survival strategies

Jouvet differed from other scientists who believed that REM sleep and dreams are just a tool for consolidating memories. He found that dreams emerge from an inherited biological basis. Jouvet saw dreams as a space for updating survival tactics by using the inherited patterns of behaviour. By reevaluating current experiences in light of past strategies, animals and humans optimize their chances of adaptation and survival. This process occurs during sleep when the brain is liberated from external distractions.

In essence, dreaming facilitates the synchronization of personal and ancestral experiences, enhancing an individual’s ability to navigate life’s challenges. This notion resonates with Jung’s theory of dreams compensating for the limitations of the conscious ego by tapping into the collective unconscious.

Freudian versus Jungian dreams analysis

Contrary to Freud’s view of dreams as guardians of sleep or manifestations of repressed desires (dreams as wish-fulfilment), Jung and Jouvet proposed a more nuanced understanding. They viewed dreams as spontaneous expressions of the central nervous system, transcending individual experiences to tap into universal patterns. These archetypal expressions, as Jung termed them, give rise to symbols that resonate across cultures and epochs.

Freud acknowledged the presence of universal symbols in dreams but attributed them primarily to sexual impulses – a perspective Jung found limiting and overly dogmatic. However, with the accumulation of vast amounts of dream data from diverse cultures worldwide, Jung’s hypothesis gained credibility.

Dreams and archetypal theory

The implications of archetypal theory extend beyond dream analysis to contemporary psychiatry. Understanding the archetypal nature of dream symbols, and themes offers valuable insights into the human psyche, acknowledging the profound connections between individual experiences and broader human narratives.

Dreams serve as a direct line of communication between our modern selves and the primal instincts of our ancestors. In our dreams, we venture into the Palaeolithic caves of our forebears, updating their experiences with our contemporary context.

Living in technocratic world

What would our ancestors make of our world today? While they might appreciate modern conveniences, they likely yearn for the communal bonds and symbiotic relationship with nature that defined their existence. The loss of close-knit communities, shared responsibilities, and mythic storytelling leaves a void in our lives, leading to archetypal frustration, feelings of disconnection form our ancient roots and as its effect to illness.

The contrast between their world and ours can be overwhelming, causing psychological distress. Exploring this theme further reveals the profound impact of societal changes on our mental well-being. By reconnecting with the archetypal world of our dreams and honouring the wisdom of our ancestors, we may find solace and healing in navigating the complexities of modern life. In the intricate tapestry of human existence, dreams serve as pivotal threads, weaving together the primal instincts and evolutionary heritage that shape our behaviour and psyche.

Dreams from biological standpoint

From a biological standpoint, dreams are akin to genetic blueprints, preparing organisms for life’s challenges. Alfred Adler‘s assertion that “dreams are dress rehearsals for life” finds resonance in contemporary ethology, where dreams are deemed essential for organizing the behavioral repertoire crucial for survival.

Moreover, the biological significance of dreams becomes apparent as warnings of potential threats. Dreams shape the instinctive responds to dangerous situation drawing upon ancestral knowledge encoded within the collective unconscious. Similarly, the role of dreams in priming sexual experiences underscores their fundamental role in maintaining innate behaviours.

Dream symbols and themes

Statistical analyses of dream content reveal recurring themes deeply rooted in our phylogenetic past. Themes such as falling, being pursued, or engaging in repeated tasks evoke ancestral experiences of survival, and adaptation. The contemporary research highlights in dreams the prevalence of archetypal symbols and themes. Such symbols and themes are present across cultures and individuals, underscoring the universality of human concerns.

Jung’s concept of the collective unconscious as a storage of accumulated human experience elucidates the evolutionary stratification of the psyche. Jungian dream analysis posits that during the sleep we tap into the collective unconscious expressing instinctual drives and ancestral memories. In Jung’s view dreams serve as conduits for assimilating unconscious contents, helping to solve individual’s challenges by using the inherited knowledge of the species.

In Jungian dreams analysis dreams and their universal symbols are not mere figments of imagination but profound expressions of our evolutionary heritage and innate instincts. They bridge the gap between past and present, offering glimpses into the timeless wisdom encoded within the human psyche.

Synchronicity in C.G.Jung’s psychology

Synchronicity refers to meaningful coincidences that occur in our lives, where events are not connected causally but by meaning.

Synchronistic events are not easily explained or predicted by conventional scientific laws, as they transcend the boundaries of linear cause-and-effect relationships. They support Jung’s conviction that psyche is not connected to time and space.

Synchronicity and Chinese philosophy

Jung was deeply introverted person looking not only at the external events but also in his “inner world” consisting of dreams and visions. Observing other people and taking in account his own experiences Jung noticed the unusual occurrence of phenomena not connected causally but by the meaning. For example, someone who thinks about a person whom he didn’t see for decades will receive just in this moment a call from this person. Jung called the meaningful coincidence “synchronicity”. He wrote:

A coincidence in time of or more causally unrelated events which have the same or similar filing’ – as when one dreams of the death of a distant friend the very same night that she dies. There can be no causal connection between the two events, yet we experience them as meaningfulCW VIII, Para. 849

The concept of synchronicity, a non-causal phenomenon meets the same difficulties from the mainstream science as his other concept, the intuition.

This “acausal connecting principle”, as Jung called it, is the basis of the ancient Chinese attitude to reality incorporated in the I Ching – namely, that anything that happens is related to everything else that happens at the same time.

Non-causal phenomena of synchronicity

Our Western world-view teaches that time is a purely abstract measure, but, if we are honest, it never feels as if it is. Jung intuitively felt this pointing to an acausal archetypal order at the root of all phenomena which is responsible for the meaningfulness. He extended this to the coincidence of associated physical and mental events. With the synchronicity concept he suggested that there is a deeper order or interconnectedness in the universe.

In his research on synchronicity Jung cooperated with the physicist Wolfgang Pauli, who became Jung’s patient after having developed a personal crisis. Working with Pauli, a Nobel Prize winner, Jung wanted to find a connection between the non-causal phenomena of synchronicity and the quantum physics. It seems that the results of this research were never published due to Pauli’s worries about his reputation as a serious scientist.

Examples of synchronistic events

Synchronistic occurrences are part of the experience of most people at some point, yet there is something inherently unsatisfactory about how they are often dismissed in our culture as “mere coincidence.” Below are some examples of synchronistic events that might be familiar to many of us:

• Thinking of a person: For instance, you might think of a friend you haven’t seen or thought about for years, only to unexpectedly meet them on the street or receive a call or email from them at the same moment.
• Repetition of specific numbers: Witnessing repeated patterns of specific numbers can also be a synchronistic sign. These numbers might appear on clocks, license plates, or bills. The probability of such numbers occurring in a particular sequence within a specific time period can seem almost impossible.
• Dreaming of future events: An example could be dreaming of a loved one’s passing, only to later find that the event has occurred in reality.

In his biography, Jung described a personal synchronistic experience: He woke up in the middle of the night with an excruciating headache. The pain moved from the front to the back of his head. The next day, he received news that one of his patients had committed suicide by shooting himself. The bullet had entered the patient’s forehead and stopped at the back of his skull, mirroring the pain Jung had experienced.

Jung, Philemon and Kingfisher

In his biography “Memories, Dreams, Reflections”, Jung mentioned a dream in which he saw an old man with kingfisher wings flying across the sky. After the dream, Jung painted the image, not understanding the meaning of the dream. While painting the kingfisher man he found in his garden a dead kingfisher, a bird he never saw before in Zurich.

“During the days when I was occupied with the painting, I found in my garden, by the lakeshore, a dead kingfisher! I was thunderstruck, for kingfishers are quite rare in the vicinity of Zurich and I have never since found a dead one. The body was recently dead – at the most, two or three days – and showed no external injuries”. MDR

Jung’s pre-sensations and visions

During his visit by Freud in Vienna, Jung heard a sudden cracking sound coming from the shelf. He mentioned to Freud that he felt it before the event happened. Freud declared it as nonsensical. Few second later Jung predicted another cracking sound.

…I had a curious sensation. It was as if my diaphragm were made of iron and were becoming red-hot a glowing vault. And at that moment there was such a loud report in the bookcase, which stood right next to us, that we both started up in alarm, fearing the thing was going to topple over on us. I said to Freud: “There, that is an example of a so-called catalytic exteriorization phenomenon”.

“Oh come,” he exclaimed. “That is sheer bosh.”

“It is not,” I replied. “You are mistaken, Herr Professor. And to prove my point I now predict that in a moment there will be another such loud report!” Sure enough, no sooner had I said the words than the same detonation went off in the bookcase. To this day I do not know what gave me this certainty. But I knew beyond all doubt that the report would come again. Freud only stared aghast at me…  MDR

Jung’s dreams and visions prior to the outburst of WW I

In his biography Jung describes his visions and dreams from spring and summer 1914:

While I was alone on a journey, I was suddenly seized by an overpowering vision: I saw a monstrous flood covering all the northern and low-lying lands between the North Sea and the Alps. When it came up to Switzerland, I saw that the mountains grew higher and higher to protect our country. I realized that a frightful catastrophe was in progress. I saw the mighty yellow waves, the floating rubble of civilization, and the drowned bodies of uncounted thousands. Then the whole sea turned to blood…. An inner voice spoke. “Look at it well; it is wholly real and it will be so. You cannot doubt it.”

…Soon afterward, in the spring and early summer of 1914, I had a thrice-repeated dream that in the middle of summer an Arctic cold wave descended and froze the land to ice. …On August 1 1914 the World War I broke out.MDR

Jungian psychology and the neurophysiology of the brain

Looking at the brain we notice that it consists of two halves. For several centuries, if not millennia, humans have been interested in whether these two brain hemispheres perform different functions. Even the Egyptians observed that injury to one hemisphere resulted in paralysis of the contralateral body half.

If human beings and all living animals had no coordinates – front/back, left/right, vertical/horizontal, north/south, east/west, down/up, past/future – no one would be able to orient themselves in space and time. This form of dualism is also reflected in the structure of our body, especially in the structure of the brain.

The abstract concept of “conflict” is the product of such dualism. It arises, so to speak, in the tension between plus and minus, between two opposites. Both destructive and creative forces arise from the opposition of two counteracting poles.

Symbols attributed to the left and right sides of the body

The question that has occupied some psychiatrists and neurologists is whether there are differences in mental functions between the two hemispheres. Karl-Gustav Jung already observed symbolic differences attributed to the left and right sides of the body.

Neurophysiological research

The examination of the psychological and neurophysiological functions of the brain uses the following methods:

• Interviewing people who have suffered brain injuries.

• Electric stimulation of various brain areas.

• Interviewing and psychological testing of patients who have undergone corpus callosotomy surgery.

• Studies using Electroencephalography (EEG). Brain waves of both hemispheres can be compared.

• Interviewing after injection of various substances (such as anesthetics) into the left or right carotid artery that supply blood to the respective brain hemisphere.

• Use of non-invasive techniques such as Positron Emission Tomography (PET), which involves injecting a radioactive substance, and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI).

Brain research after commissurotomy

In the early 1940s, a procedure called commissurotomy, which involved the severing of the corpus callosum, was frequently performed in cases of severe epilepsy. Surgeons were surprised to find that patients who underwent this procedure behaved normally afterwards. One hypothesis was that the corpus callosum only had a purely mechanical connecting function between the two hemispheres.

Left versus right brain hemisphere

In the 1950s and 60s, Roger Sperry at the University of Chicago and later at the California Institute of Technology, focused on this area of research. Sperry discovered that humans have “two minds,” one form of consciousness located in the left hemisphere, and the other in the right.

He found that the left hemisphere is specialized in language, analytical, and causal thinking, while the right is specialized in holistic thinking (the ability to bring different impressions to “a common denominator”).

Interestingly, commissurotomized patients were able to write with their right hand but not draw, and vice versa with their left hand.

Analytical versus holistic brain function

There are further tests showing that the left hemisphere is better in the use of language, logical reasoning, and the right hemisphere is superior to the left in tasks such as perception and construction. For example, the right hemisphere is involved in recognizing faces and composing fragmented information into a whole concept, while the left hemisphere is better at analyzing and fragmenting information and creating temporal sequences. It should be noted that an obsessive personality with a strong tendency towards order and perfectionism signifies an emphasis on left-hemispheric function. Listening to music, playing music, and painting are right-hemispheric activities. In the relaxed state of the patient’s electroencephalogram (EEG), a so-called alpha rhythm (waves of 8-10 Hz, i.e., 8-10 waves/second) is typical. When the subject is told to concentrate on a task, the suppression of this rhythm occurs.

Rational versus intuitive functions

Localized disappearance of alpha rhythms is an indication of brain activity in that area. Using this technique, it has been found that people who had to concentrate on mathematical or analytical tasks developed suppression of alpha rhythms in the left hemisphere. Tasks such as painting, listening to music, or thinking generated suppression of alpha rhythms in the right hemisphere. A Californian psychologist, Robert Ornstein, discovered a difference between the rational function of the left hemisphere and the intuitive function of the right. He believes that Western culture emphasizes the left hemisphere (i.e., logical, analytical, direct, causal thinking) while Eastern thinking (i.e., more diffuse, synthetic, and tolerant of paradoxical ideas) is right-hemispheric. Ornstein’s hypothesis has been confirmed by other researchers who suggest that human thinking occurs simultaneously on two different pathways: digital encoding (discursive, verbal, and logical) and analog encoding (non-discursive, non-verbal, and eidetic).

Primary and secondary thinking process

This concept is almost identical to Freud’s idea that we have two modes of thinking, which he called “primary and secondary processes of thinking”.

The secondary process of thinking is logical and develops only at the time of language development, while the primary process of thinking is relatively unorganized, primitive, “magical”, undifferentiated, controlled by emotions, archaic, and imprecise.

Evolutionary specialization of brain hemispheres

The question that must be asked is: why did the two halves of the brain specialize during evolution?

If a commissurotomized chimpanzee were asked where he wants to go, he would point in different directions with his left and right hand. The same question asked of a commissurotomized human would be answered unambiguously. He would point in one direction with his right hand.

David Washdorn and David Allen Hamburg  assume that left-hemispheric dominance emerged as an evolutionary adaptation and reflects the new tasks that the new, right-handed, tool- and weapon-using, speaking animal developed.

Left cerebral “imperialism”

Cerebral imperialism: It can be assumed that left-hemispheric emphasis exists in all cultures, with the Western civilization being extremely so. A deliberate, rationalistic way of thinking is literally drilled into children. This kind of thinking begins in school, with emphasis on areas such as writing, reading, and arithmetic. Activities like art, dance, and music are considered leisure activities. Education reflects the society’s leading obsession. Cultures like ours, which emphasize the importance of rational analytical thinking with a higher value placed on the material, automatically produce a “left-hemispheric imperialism.” The phenomenon of dissociation (separation) of the left from the right hemisphere was already described by Sperry (1968): as it seems, the left hemisphere is little involved most of the time with the activities of the right hemisphere and is also capable of suppressing the activity of the right hemisphere.

Reserch on brain and psyche in individuals after stroke

Anyone who has experience with stroke patients knows that left hemisphere strokes are accompanied by conscious feelings of loss and grief.

Strokes in the right hemisphere, on the other hand, often go unnoticed (neglect).

In such cases, even the paralyzed contralateral side, i.e. the left side of the patient, is often neglected. Patients frequently deny having any deficits in their bodies, and in extreme cases, such patients may even request surgical removal of their paralyzed left leg or left arm.

In patients who have suffered a right hemisphere insult, an unconscious grief reaction can be detected using psychoanalytic methods. The right hemisphere is responsible for the mechanism of symbolization described by Freud. If the unconscious has a place in the brain, it is certainly the right hemisphere.

EEG research

Neurobiological research shows that EEG activity in the right hemisphere is more pronounced during sleep than in the left hemisphere. Wilder Penfield was able to induce dreams and visual hallucinations by stimulating the right hemisphere during neurosurgical operations. The stimuli of the left hemisphere did not show such effects.

Moreover, patients who underwent commissurotomy were no longer able to reproduce their dreams.

Freudian and Jungian psychology in the light of modern reserch

Dr. Ernest Rossi, a psychologist from Malibu, California, made a very apt remark: The division between synthetic thinking represented by the right hemisphere and analytical thinking of the left directly corresponds to the division between the two psychotherapeutic schools, that is, Freud’s approach and Jung’s approach. While the former has prevailed, the latter remains in the shadows in the field of psychology.

Carl Gustav Jung observed: “The intellect has no difficulty in analyzing the unconscious as a passive entity, in contrast: such an approach corresponds to our rational attitude. The approach of letting the unconscious go its own way and considering unconscious perception as reality is beyond the ability of the average European”. In this sense, neurosis is a self-splitting. The healing process means creating a “wholeness”. A conscious wholeness can only arise through a union of ego consciousness and the realm of the Self.

Evolution, brain development and psychology

The human brain’s evolution spans millions of years, building upon evolutionary older brain structures belonging to our animal ancestors.

The neurobiologist Paul MacLean demonstrated that the human brain retains functional structures from earlier mammals, even reptilian brains. This oldest reptilian brain structure, is the brainstem, located along the spinal cord extension.

The reptilian brain (R-complex)

The oldest region of the brain is the brainstem, located as an extension of the spinal cord. The brainstem corresponds to the reptilian brain. This structure of the brain contains nuclei, consisting of grey matter, which oversee essential life functions such as respiration and heart action.

The brainstem also houses the reticular system, responsible for sleep and wakefulness rhythms. The reptiles were not able to process cognitively past and future events. At this stage of evolution, emotions did not exist. In consequence the interactions within the brainstem were primarily instinctive and automatic.

The typical response patterns of a reptile and this brain region include:

•            Winning and defending territory

•            Dominating a rival

•            Instinctively avoiding danger

•            Mating.

The presence of this brain region in civilized humans signifies the existence of instincts and subjective emotions. By gaining control the reptilian brain can “shut down” the individual’s free will. Therefore, behaviours and feelings such as hatred, xenophobia, impulsive actions, as well as conformity, deception, and cunning, originate from this area.

The evolution of the mammalian brain

The brain region built upon the “R-complex” corresponds to the brain of a paleo-mammals. Structures belonging to this brain region include the limbic system along with the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland, which control and integrate the activities of all endocrine organs.

The hypothalamus and the pituitary gland operate based on the homeostatic principle: they monitor hormone levels, maintain the balance between hunger and satiety, oversee our sexual functions, fluid balance, and regulate the amount of sleep versus wakefulness.

At this stage of evolution, emotions like fear and anger emerged, along with associated environmental responses such as fight or flight. Such feelings as love and attachment are also related to this brain region.

Environmental differences in mamals versus reptiles

This evolutionary environmental differences in mamals compared to reptilian behaviour:

1.           Parenting and nurturing towards one’s own children

2.           Audio-vocal communication between mother and child

3.           Play

The most primitive form of vocalization in a mammal is the separation cry. It is the sounds produced by a young mammal when separated from its mother. The purpose of this cry is to prevent the non-viable offspring from being isolated from the mother.

Audio-vocal communication plays a significant role in the further development of a mammals. It facilitates the contact with other members of the group. At that stage of evolution mammals developed the play function. It is a practical form of training that enables the adult mammal’s survival ensuring the harmony within the group.

The function that determines mother-child interaction is anchored in the limbic system specifically in its thalamo-cingulate area. This applies to humans as well. In all mammals, including humans, the midbrain is the structure that monitors psychophysical efficiency and most adaptive reactions to the environment.

Brain evolution and development of the neo-cortex

The higher psychic functions such as consciousness, “free will,” and “rationality” are anchored in the neo-mammalian brain, namely the neocortex. In the human brain, the neocortex is particularly developed and comprises 75% of the 10 to 12 billion neurons of the total brain structure.

As known, in humans, the left hemisphere of the brain is dominant. The two hemispheres are connected by the corpus callosum, a kind of rapid communication pathway between the two brain halves. The left dominant hemisphere (in right-handers) is responsible for our rational, empirical thinking and the use of language.

The latest evolutionary achievements of the human brain are the frontal areas of the cerebral cortex. These areas have given rise to the achievements of modern civilization, such as free choice, predicting consequences, and developing innovative solutions.

Furthermore, the frontal cortex also allows modern humans to exercise their free will and make decisions that deviate from the reptilian automatic response patterns.

The development of the frontal cortex, especially the left dominant hemisphere, is the material foundation for human civilization.

Brain evolution and psychoanalytical theory

The midbrain, on the other hand, is the “material” foundation for Freud’s pleasure principle, housing reactions characterized by impulsivity and immediate gratification of desires. The neocortex, in turn, represents social adaptation, questioning reality, and constantly striving to control emotions originating from the midbrain.

Flor-Henry (1976) and Schwartz (1975) demonstrated that human emotional responses depend on the interaction between the limbic system and the parietal and frontal cortex of the left hemisphere. Flor-Henry found that the entire right-hemispheric, limbic, affective system is under the control of the left frontal cortex.

C.G. Jung and Sigmund Freud. Friendship, Collaboration, Differences

Carl Jung, 19 years Freud’s junior, became his close associate from 1906 until 1913, a decisive period for the development and international recognition of psychoanalysis.

Carl Gustav Jung was familiar with all of Sigmund Freud‘s works, but their personal contact did not begin until 1906, by which time Jung had already developed the basic concepts of his psychology.

In 1906 Jung published his book “Studies in Word-Association”. In the word association experiment Jung proved scientifically the existence of unconscious autonomous complexes found by Freud trough observation of his patients. Jung’s experimental findings provided objective support for the phenomenon observed by Freud’s, he termed “repression”, supporting at the same time his psychoanalytical theory. After having read Jung’s book Freud recognized that the word association experiment was the first evidenced based, scientific proof of his theory.

Jung meets Freud

He invited Jung to Vienna where both men met in March 1907. There is no doubt that the men were intellectually infatuated with one another, as they belonged to the most brilliant minds of the past century who laid the foundation for today’s depth psychology.

By the initial meeting Freud and Jung talked without interruption for thirteen hours. From that time onward, they established a close friendship and a fruitful collaboration. For six years Jung dedicated time and effort to support the psychoanalysis. At that time Jung worked at the prestigious Burghölzli Psychiatric Hospital in Zurich as a psychiatrist and the assistant to Eugen Bleuler.

Supporting the psychoanalytical movement

Jung and Bleuler joined the psychoanalytical movement with Jung appointed to the president of “The International Psychoanalytic Association” helping Freud’s heavily attacked psychoanalytical theory to gain international recognition.

Initially, Freud was enthusiastic about his younger colleague, and Jung saw in Freud a paternal mentor. In 1912 jung wrote a book, “Transformations and Symbols of the Libido,” which presented his own ideas on the psychic dynamics. In contrary to Freud, Jung saw more sources influencing the libido than only the sex drive, questioning with this statement the core concept of Freud psychoanalytical theory.

Freudian versus Jungian Model of the Psyche

Freud believed in the doctrine of empiricism treating a newborn as “tabula rasa” (blank slate), waiting for a content.

Jung never disagreed with Freud’s view that personal experience is of crucial significance for the development of each individual. However, he denied that this development occurred in an unstructured personality. For Jung, the role of personal experience was to develop what is already there – to activate the archetypal potential already present in the collective unconscious.

Freudian model

Sigmund Freud proposed that human personality consists of three elements: the id, the ego, and the superego. These components interact to shape human behaviour.

The Id

The id is the source of all psychic energy and the primary component of personality, present from birth. It is entirely unconscious and includes instinctive and primitive behaviours. Driven by the pleasure principle, the id seeks immediate gratification of all desires, wants, and needs. In early life, the id is crucial because it ensures that an infant’s needs are met. Infants, ruled entirely by the id, cry until their needs are satisfied.

The Ego

The ego develops from the id and ensures that the id’s impulses can be expressed in a socially acceptable manner. It operates in the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious mind, dealing with reality. The term “ego” often describes the cohesive awareness of someone’s personality, but it is only one part of the full personality.

The ego operates on the reality principle, striving to satisfy the id’s desires in realistic and socially appropriate ways, weighing the costs and benefits of actions before deciding whether to act on or abandon impulses.

Freud compared the id to a horse and the ego to the horse’s rider. The horse provides power and motion, while the rider directs and guides it. Without the rider, the horse would wander aimlessly. Similarly, the ego directs the id’s impulses. The ego also manages tension created by unmet impulses finding real-world solutions to satisfy the id’s desires.

The Superego

The superego, the last component of personality to develop, emerges around age five. It holds internalized moral standards and ideals acquired from parents and society, forming our sense of right and wrong.

The superego provides guidelines for making judgments and has two parts: the conscience and the ego ideal. The conscience part contains information about behaviours viewed by the society as good and the others as not acceptable.

The ego ideal includes the rules and standards for behaviours the ego aspires to. The superego strives to perfect and civilize behaviour, suppressing the id’s unacceptable urges and pushing the ego to act on idealistic rather than realistic principles.

These three elements—id, ego, and superego—work together to form a complex human personality.

Jungian Model of the Psyche

A model of Jung’s psychology can be visualized as a globe or a sphere.

The Self

At the centre, and permeating the entire system with its influence, is the Self.

Collective Unconscious

In the lower part of the concentric circles is the collective unconscious, composed of archetypes such as anima, animus and the shadow.

Consciousness

The upper part of the second circle represents consciousness, with its focal ego orbiting the system rather like a planet orbiting the sun, or the moon orbiting the earth.

Personal Unconscious

Intermediate between the consciousness and the collective unconscious is the personal unconscious, which consists of complexes, each of which linked to an archetype. These complexes are personifications of archetypes; they are the means through which archetypes manifest them in the personal psyche.

Jung’s Concept of Libido

Jung found these and other aspects of Freud’s thinking reductionist and too narrow. Instead of conceiving psychic energy (or libido as Freud called it) as wholly sexual, Jung preferred to think of it as a more generalized “life force”, of which sexuality was but one mode of expression.

In work, and in a series of lectures given in New York in September 1912, Jung spelt out the “heretical” view that libido was a much wider concept than Freud allowed. He presented series of examples that this “life force” appears “crystallized” as the universal symbols apparent in the myths of humanity.

Jung’s publication of “The Symbols” initiated the final deprture from Freud.

Jung’s departure from Freud

The incompatibility of their theoretical positions eventually led to mutual accusations, polemics, and disparagement, leading to the final abandonment of their relationship in 1913. In the same year Jung coined the term “Analytical Psychology“, to describe his own depth psychology school. This term refers both to practical therapeutic work and to signify the departure from Freudian psychoanalysis towards his own school of complex psychology.

Freud accused Jung of a lack of appreciation for scientific teaching, criticizing his style as confused, inconsistent, and ambiguous. Jung, on the other hand, criticized his former mentor, claiming that Freud’s intellectual grasp of the psychological process is paradoxical and dogmatic.

Freud’s and Jung’s theoretical differences

Freud derived his experiential material mainly from neurotics, whose conditions allowed for a more precise description of psychological processes.

Jung, on the other hand, gathered his experiential material primarily from psychotics during his work at Burghölzli Psychiatric Hospital. The symptom of psychotic patients, in the form of hallucinations and delusions, are less differentiated and more confusing. Jung’s own childhood experiences and the data he gathered from psychotic patients led him to the assumption of universally shared unconscious contents. He found such themes not only in psychotics but also in the religions and myths of the world. Consequently, Jung’s theory of the collective unconscious, archetypes and individuation was shaped more by a humanistic approach than by a causal-scientific model.

The conflict between Jung and Freud became so hostile that the idea of combining their theories of depth psychology or psychoanalysis was almost impossible. Instead of being objective, self-reflective, tolerant, and accepting of each other’s views, they excluded and devalued each other. This prevented any constructive discussion of their theoretical differences. However, Freud’s idea of the individual unconscious and Jung’s concept of the collective unconscious do not contradict each other. TheyThey are like two sides of a coin, complementing each other and helping to understand the complexity of the human psyche.

Freud and Jung in light of their distinct typologies

With the publication of “Psychological Types,” and the book’s popularity, Jung became publicly recognized to a broader audience. Freud, disgruntled, dismissed “Psychological Types” as the work of a snob and mystic.

The conflicting views of Freud and Jung mirrored the personalities of both men. Freud being extraverted and Jung introverted, naturally destined them to opposition. This division extends until today to those who either enthusiastically embraced or categorically rejected Jung’s theories.

The fundamental disparity between their personalities cannot be separated from their theoretical standpoints. Since the pioneers of depth psychology also derived their insights from themselves, the subject and object of research largely overlapped. The result of research is always influenced by the subjective perception of the researcher, as the observer is by default intertwined with the observed event.

Another noteworthy distinction lies in their temporal perspectives. Freud tended to look backward, focusing on adaptive concerns and goals, while Jung inclined to look forward, emphasizing adaptive concerns and goals. This contrast becomes evident not only in their approaches to art but also in their approaches to mental illnesses. Jung came to nub of the matter when rehearsing his differences with Freud. In 1920 he wrote:

“Philosophical criticism has helped me to see every psychology – my own included – has the character of a subjective confession ... Even when I am dealing with empirical, I’m necessarily speaking about myself”

CW IV, para. 774

Freud’s and Jung’s differences related to their backgrounds

Jung believed that his differences with Freud stemmed from his own introversion contrasting Freud’s extraversion. While this explanation holds some truth, it fails to give due consideration to other significant factors. Both men hailed from vastly different backgrounds. Freud, with his Jewish-urban socialization, was nurtured by a young and beautiful mother. He received an education rooted in progressive traditions, and by default he naturally gravitated towards science. In contrast, Jung, a Protestant, had an insecure bond with his depressed mother and was deeply influenced by theology and German romantic movement.

Following their different upbringing and life circumstances, it’s not surprising that Freud adopted a sceptical empiricism, believing in the leading role of sexuality. He studied the psyche “from outside,” like an object, in a typical scientific manner. On the contrary, Jung perceived the psyche “from within” as a creation on its own. From such perspective, he proposed a different concept of the psyche, seeing sexuality only as a part of his broader concept of libido.

“Here I could not agree with Freud. He considered the cause of the repression to be a sexual trauma. From my practice, however, I was familiar with numerous cases of neurosis in which the question of sexuality played a subordinate part, other factors standing in the foreground for example, the problem of social adaptation, of oppression by tragic circumstances of life, prestige considerations, and so on. Later I presented such cases to Freud; but he would not grant that factors other than sexuality could be the cause. That was highly unsatisfactory to me.”

C.G. Jung. “Memories, Dreams, Reflections”

Carl Gustav Jung and Otto Gross

The relationship between C.G. Jung and Otto Gross is an important chapter in the history of psychoanalysis. Jung’s relationship with Otto Gross was marked by a profound initial connection followed by a painful distancing. This trajectory reflects not only the personal dynamics between the two men but also the challenges and the emotional impact on the pioneers of the new therapeutic method. John Kerr’s book and the movie based on it, “The Dangerous Method,” brilliantly portraying the personal drama of the ivolved therapists and their patients.

Otto Gross at Burghölzli Hospital

Jung’s close professional relationship with Otto Gross began in 1908. His referral to the Burghölzli Hospital happened due to Freud’s recommendation, where he was analysed by C.G. Jung – and, in turn, Gross analysed Jung.  

The mutual analysis with Gross provided Jung with an insight, which later helped him articulate the nuanced dynamics of transference and countertransference. Gross’s influence is evident in how Jung came to view these interactions not just as clinical phenomena but as integral elements of a dialectical process within therapy, where analyst and patient engage as equals in an unfolding psychological drama.

Jung recognized in Gross many aspects of his own nature, describing him as a “twin brother.” This deep identification suggests that Gross’s perspectives and perhaps his methodological innovations significantly shaped Jung’s thoughts on the dynamics of the psychoanalytic relationship.

Jung’s emotional responses—ranging from admiration to rejection and pathologization—highlight the intense psychological strains that such pioneering analytical relationships can produce, where personal and professional boundaries are continually tested and redefined.

This article explores the critical yet often overlooked role of Otto Gross on Jung, both personally and professionally, shaping psychoanalytic theory and showing the intriguing dynamics of the relationship of these two extraordinary men.

Who was Otto Gross?

Otto Gross (17 March 1877 – 13 February 1920) was an Austrian psychoanalyst and the early supporter of Freud’s psychoanalytical theory before diverging to embrace anarchism and advocate for sexual liberation.

Gross was a radical thinker, whose theories diverged significantly from those of Freud. He advocated for anarchy and libertyn behaviour not only in his private life but also within the therapeutic process. Gross’s ideas extended beyond theory into his personal and professional life, blurring the lines between personal liberation and professional practice. Living these ideals, Gross marginalizing himself and his scientific achievements within the psychoanalytical circle not only during his life but also poshumosly being omitted from the history of psychoanalysis.

Despite his initial contributions, Gross faced exclusion from the psychoanalytic movement and was largely omitted from psychoanalytic and psychiatric histories. He ultimately died in poverty.

The recognition of Gross’s contributions was not entirely absent. Figures like Ernest Jones and Sándor Ferenczi acknowledged Gross’s influence; however, their acknowledgments highlight a period when Gross was highly esteemed among his peers.

Gross’s ideas resonated in Carl Jung, whose own theoretical orientations were in a formative stage during their encounters. His intellectual influence on Carl Gustav Jung was profound, but today largely forgotten.

Gross’s Impact on Jung’s Theoretical Framework

Gross’ influence on Jung’s work and psyche, revealing the complex interplay of acknowledgment and subtle denial that characterized their relationship.

The Influence on Jung’s Emotional and Sexual Relationships

Gross’s impact on Jung extended deeply into the latter’s personal life, particularly in how he managed relationships with women, whether they were his patients, former patients, or acquaintances. Jung seemed to adopt Gross’s controversial practices, possibly prescribing relationships as part of therapy and offering advice on intimate matters, which was an avant-garde approach at the time. This method not only challenged conventional norms but also positioned Jung at the forefront of a more liberated discourse on the role of sexuality and emotional connections within psychoanalytic practice.

The account of Henry Murray, detailed in Robinson’s “Love’s Story Told,” illustrates the complex, emotionally charged dynamics that Jung engaged in, influenced perhaps by Gross’s own unconventional methods. These relationships, which involved significant emotional entanglements and breaches of professional boundaries, underscore the profound impact Gross had on Jung’s approach to handling transference and countertransference in therapeutic settings.

The correspondence and ideas shared between Gross and Jung during the early 20th century were instrumental in helping Jung develop a more elaborate and comprehensive psychological typology. This not only advanced his own theoretical framework but also contributed to the diversification of psychoanalytic discourse beyond the confines of Freudian thought.

The Father Complex and the Maternal Struggle

For both Jung and Gross, the paternal figure represented an authoritative constraint that both men strove to overcome. This rebellion against the father was not just a personal struggle but also a professional one, as it shaped their views on psychoanalysis.

The influence of Otto Gross on Jung’s concept of the paternal figure in psychoanalytic theory is multifaceted and profound. In Jung’s essay, “The Significance of the Father in the Destiny of the Individual,” Gross’s impact, though later obscured, was initially prominent. Jung’s decision to eventually omit Gross from his references does not diminish the substantial ideological impact Gross had during their collaboration.

Both men were grappling with the authoritarian legacy of their fathers, which inevitably colored their views on authority and rebellion. This encounter with Gross undoubtedly radicalized Jung’s thinking, leading him to question and eventually redefine the role of the father figure within the psychic development of individuals.

Gross’s Contribution to Jung’s Typology

Gross’s theoretical contributions significantly shaped Jung’s ideas on psychological typology. Gross, who often opposed Freud’s theories, particularly the role of sexuality in neuroses, provided Jung with a framework to explore alternative drives within the human psyche.

Gross’s early work on what he termed the ‘Secondary Function’—a concept describing how thoughts associate in the mind —directly influenced Jung’s formulation of introverted and extraverted types. Gross proposed that the way thoughts connect can lead to a broad, shallow consciousness or a narrow, deepened consciousness, concepts that Jung later expanded upon in his own typological theories.

This contribution is crucial in understanding how Jung came to categorize human psychology into two primary types, which became a central aspect of his typology. Gross’s innovative thoughts on psychic variability and the non-linear dynamics of thought processes provided a foundational element for Jung’s later work.

Influence on Jung’s theory of transference and countertransference

The concepts of transference and countertransference are the most important phenomena in the analytical psychology. Transference and countertransference were first described by Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis. Originally perceived as a hindrance in psychoanalysis, transference evolved into a cornerstone of therapeutic interaction, allowing for the projection of the patient’s feelings onto the analyst. The countertransference is the reverse process, where the analyst projects his emotional complexes into the patient.

Jung’s contributions to these concepts, particularly through his work from 1929 to 1946, demonstrate his innovative approach described in his book “The Psychology of the Transference.”

Gross encouraged a more liberated handling of emotional transference between analysts and their patients, a notion that Jung found both fascinating and troubling. Jung’s ambivalence towards Gross’s approach is reflected in his writings and personal correspondences. While he initially seemed to embrace Gross’s disregard for traditional marital fidelity – as seen in his own relationships with his former patients like Sabina Spielrein and later Toni Wolff – he ultimately retreated from these ideas in later years.

This oscillation between acceptance and rejection of Gross’s ideas highlights Jung’s broader struggle with the concept of sexual morality and its implications for psychoanalytic practice.

Gross and Jung mutual analysis

Despite the initial progress and mutual benefit, Jung grew increasingly aware of the limitations of the therapeutic process with Gross. His realisation of the enduring power of Gross’s infantile complexes, despite their analytical efforts, led Jung to a grim diagnosis of dementia praecox (now known as schizophrenia). This diagnosis marked a turning point in their relationship, reflecting a professional and emotional watershed for Jung.

Jung’s initial reaction to Gross, as captured in his correspondence and case notes, reflects a mixture of admiration and professional curiosity. Gross was not just another patient; he was a fellow psychoanalyst whose ideas challenged and stimulated Jung’s own thinking. This is evident from Jung’s letters to Freud where he mentions that the analysis with Gross yielded “scientifically beautiful results,” indicating the depth and richness of their discussions. However, this high regard is barely noticeable in Jung’s published works, where his acknowledgment of Gross’s influence is minimal, highlighting a discrepancy that hints at deeper undercurrents of conflict and divergence.

The intensity of their sessions is palpable in Jung’s descriptions of their time together. Jung writes about dropping all other commitments to focus on Gross, suggesting a level of dedication and involvement that goes beyond the typical analyst-patient relationship. Gross, in turn, analysed Jung, contributing to significant insights that Jung admits benefited his own psychic health. This mutual analysis is indicative of the deeply reciprocal nature of their interaction, which was both a professional engagement and a profound intellectual exchange.

Jung’s bitter disappointment with Gross

Jung’s subsequent communications with Freud reveal a mix of disappointment and resignation. The diagnosis, coupled with Gross’s abrupt departure from the clinic, escaping “over the garden wall,” symbolises the dramatic and unresolved conclusion to their intensive work together. This incident not only signifies the end of their direct interaction but also underscores the transient impact of their analytical efforts, which, as Jung noted, left “not a trace” behind.

This shift is critical to understanding Jung’s emotional and professional responses. The diagnosis of dementia precox, while clinically justified in Jung’s view, also served as a protective barrier against the intense and perhaps overwhelming connections he had experienced with Gross. Freud’s response to Jung’s efforts—acknowledging the difficulty of the case while emphasising the personal growth Jung achieved through it—further highlights the complexity of the situation. It underscores the psychological and emotional toll it took on Jung, something Freud seemed to anticipate and for which he expressed gratitude that Jung, rather than himself, had undertaken the analysis.

Moreover, Jung’s later reflections on his relationship with Gross reveal a mix of grief and distancing. His description of Gross as “my friend” despite everything and the acknowledgement of Gross’s noble qualities coexist with a portrayal of Gross as a tragic figure whose fate was sealed by mental illness. This narrative allowed Jung to maintain a professional boundary but also hinted at unresolved emotional pain associated with their interaction.

Jung’s retrospective view on Gross

Jung’s comments on Gross in later years, particularly in communications with other psychoanalysts, was often tinged with resentment and pain. For instance, his comparison of Gross with Sabina Spielrein, another patient with whom Jung had a complicated relationship, suggests a pattern of intense, transformative relationships that ended in pain and professional distancing.

In these cases, Jung’s strategy seems to have involved rationalising his clinical failures or disappointments. The notion of Gross as a “case,” or “madman,” rather than a person in later years points to Jung’s need to depersonalise a relationship that had become too personally challenging.

Despite Jung’s later attempts to minimise Gross’s influence on his work, the intellectual and personal engagements between the two men had a lasting impact on Jung’s development as a thinker and psychoanalyst. Gross’s radical ideas challenged and expanded Jung’s psychological constructs, especially concerning paternal significance, psychological typology, and Jung’s concept of transference.

Overview of Carl Gustav Jung Psychology

Jung’s psychology became also a cosmology, for he saw the journey of personal development towards fuller consciousness as occurring in the context of eternity.

The psyche, existing sui generis as objective part of nature, is subject to the same laws that govern the universe and is itself the supreme fulfilment of those laws. Through the miracle of consciousness, the human psyche provides the mirror in which nature sees herself reflected.

Jung’s New Concept of Psychology

Jung’s psychology challenged the “tabula rasa” concept that all individuals are born as an “empty slight,” shaped only by societal influences.

Jung investigated archetypes seeing in them innate neuropsychic centres’ possessing the capacity to initiate, control, and mediate the human behavioural. Thus, on appropriate occasions, archetypes give rise to similar thoughts, images, myths, feelings, and ideas in people, irrespective of their class, creed, race, geographical location, or historical epoch.

An individual’s entire archetypal endowment makes up the collective unconscious, whose authority and power are vested in a central nucleus responsible for integrating the whole personality, which Jung termed the Self.

Jung on the Psyche

“The psyche deserves to be taken as a phenomenon in itself, for there are no grounds for regarding it as a mere epiphenomenon, even though it is associated with the function of the brain; just as little as one can conceive of life as an epiphenomenon of the chemistry of carbon.” Contributions to Analytical Psychology, p. 6. London: Kegan Paul, 1928.

Jung says further:

“We can very well determine with sufficient certainty that an individual consciousness with reference to ourselves has come to an end in death. Whether, however, the continuity of the psychic processes is thereby broken remains doubtful, for we can today assert with much less assurance than fifty years ago that the psyche is chained to the brain. On the contrary, it appears that the psyche is not bound to space and time. The unconscious manifests itself in such a way that it seems to stand outside of them; it is spaceless and timeless. ” Wirklichkeit der Seele, p. 212. Zürich: Rascher, 1934

C.G. Jung’s Archetypes

Through numerous intercultural studies, travels, encounters with indigenous peoples, and the study of myths, and literature, as well as through observing his psychiatric patients, Jung identified common images and ideas that appear collectively throughout human history. He referred to these entities as “archetypes.”

Jung described archetypes as universal, innate patterns of behavior that represent inherited knowledge passed down from our ancestors. They function as behavioral templates, or modi operandi, that are activated in specific life circumstances. Jung compared archetypes to dry riverbeds that fill with water after rain, suggesting that archetypes similarly become filled with content when activated in particular life situations.

Archetypal Neurosis

Every living organism has an anatomical structure and a behavioral repertoire that is uniquely adapted to the environment in which it evolved. This is the “environment of evolutionary adaptation” in which individuals will live out their life cycle. Any change in the environment has consequences for the organism.

Human versatility, has led to dramatic transformations of the environments in which we live. In fact, the speed at which environments have changed in recent centuries has far outstripped the pace at which natural selection can progress in the traditional Darwinian manner. Today we live in overcrowded, polluted cities, being constantly exposed to stress. Such environment causes the frustration of the archetypal needs leading inevitably to mental health disorders appearing in the shape of “archetypal neuroses.”

The Archetypes of Anima and Animus

Just as gender is experienced as an affirmation of the archetypal principle appropriate to one’s sex, so relations with the other sex rest on archetypal foundation. Jung called this contra sexual archetype the animus in women and the anima in men. As feminine aspect of man and the masculine aspect of woman, they function as a pair of opposites in the unconscious, profoundly influencing the relations of all men and women.

The Persona

The Persona is a conformity archetype. It is our public face, or the “mask” we wear in different social situations. It is a product of adopting societal expectations, roles, commands, and prohibitions.

The Shadow

The shadow is the opposite to the persona. The shadow encloses our “hidden site”, repressed aggressive impulses, desires, and instincts. Common manifestations of the shadow include envy, greed, prejudice, hate, and aggression. However, the shadow contains not only the darker, unacknowledged aspects of our personality but also its untapped potentials. Its integration is crucial for personal growth and ethical living.

Jung’s Typology

Jung’s theory of psychological types has its roots in his biography, as he grappled with typological duality from a young age. He labelled the concrete, outwardly-oriented, socially compatible side “Personality No. 1,” distinguishing it from “Personality No. 2,” the inwardly, unconscious and wise aspect of his personality.

In “Psychological Types” Jung proposed the concept of four functions of the psyche: two non-rational functions: Sensation and Intuition, and two rational functions: Thinking and Feeling. Those functions are interlinked with two main attitudes: Extraversion and Introversion. “Extraversion” implies outward-directed psychic energy, whereas “introversion” denotes energy drawn inward. Combining two attitudes and the four function Jung distinguished eight personality types.

Jungian Dream Analysis

Sigmund Freud’s book “The Interpretation of Dreams” dominated the field of dream analysis. In Freud’s view the book was his biggest achievement and contribution to science. However, it was Carl Gustav Jung who found that dreams are not just “guardians of sleep” of vehicles for “wish fulfilments.”

In Jung’s view dreams are structured narratives fundamental for our survival and adaptation. They are “living fossils” preserving the knowledge of our species throughout time. They bridge the gap between our Palaeolithic ancestry and modern society interconnecting human consciousness with evolutionary heritage.

Synchronicity

Jung introduced the concept of synchronicity, he called also meaningful coincidence, into his psychology. He observed events occurring simultaneously that were not causally connected but were linked by their content. An example of such an acausal phenomenon might be thinking of an old friend we haven’t seen in years, only to receive a phone call from that very person at the same moment. Synchronistic phenomena are familiar to all of us, but they are often dismissed as “mere coincidence.”

If synchronistic events are acausal, they transcend the boundaries of linear cause-and-effect relationships and point to a non-material psychic existence beyond the time and space.

Jungian Psychology Today

Understanding depth psychology isn’t possible without immersing oneself in Jung’s conflict with Freud.

Sigmund Freud developed psychoanalysis, a model of the dynamics of the human psyche and the first effective treatment method of mental health disorders. Freud also originated the language used until today in analytical psychology.

From today’s perspective, Freud’s libido concept and his dream interpretation method proved to be wrong while Jung’s stood the test of time. However, it is Freud’s analytical theory which entered the “pantheon of science”, while Jung and his psychology are considered as non-scientific or even esoteric.

The Jungian psychologist James Hillman compared Freudian psychology to the catholic church consolidated by a dogma. He saw the “dogma-free” Jungian psychology on the opposite pole, comparing it to the protestant church splitting from the common trunk into dozens of branches. This explains the fragmentation of Jungian societies around the world.

Jung’s Reflections on His Life

Looking back on his life, Jung reflected:

“In my case, it must have been a passionate urge to understand that brought about my birth. For that is the strongest element in my nature” (MDR 297).

In old age, Jung had many premonitions of approaching death, and what pressed him was the lack of fuss the unconscious makes about it. Death for Jung seemed to be a goal in itself, something to be welcomed.

Jung’s needs to “understand and to know” kept him creatively alive well into his eighty-sixth year, when he suffered two strokes and died peacefully on 6 June 1961 at Küsnacht.

Face To Face with Carl Gustav Jung (1959)

Interview with C.G. Carl Jung 1957

“Matter of Heart” – Documentary on Carl Gustav Jung

Sources

Jung, C.G.; Aniela Jaffé (1965). Memories, Dreams, Reflections. New York: Random House. p. v.

Collected Works of C.G. Jung”. Princeton University Press. Retrieved 2020-08-22.

Jung, Carl Gustav. Psychology and the Occult. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1978

Bair, Deirdre (2003). Jung: A Biography. New York: Back Bay Books.

Gay, Peter (1995). Freud: A Life for Our Time. London: Papermac.

The BBC interviewed Jung for Face to Face with John Freeman at Jung’s home in Zurich in 1959

Carl Jung (1959). The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious, Collected Works, Volume 9, Part 1. Princeton University Press

Stevens, Anthony (1994): Jung: A very short introduction, Oxford University Press, Oxford & N.Y. ISBN 978-0-19-285458-2

Jung, Carl Gustav & Riklin, Franz Beda: Diagnostische Assoziationsstudien. I. Beitrag. Experimentelle Untersuchungen über Assoziationen Gesunder (pp. 55–83). 1904, Journ. Psych. Neurol., 3/1-2. – Hrsg. v. August Forel & Oskar Vogt. Red. v. Karl Brodmann. – Leipzig, Verlag von Johann Ambrosius Barth, 1904, gr.-8°, Jung, Carl (1963).

Freud, Sigmund. “The Interpretation of Dreams”. Classics in the History of Psychology. Retrieved 19 August 2023.Hall, James (1983).

Jungian Dream Interpretation: A Handbook of Theory and Practice. Inner City Books. ISBN 0-919123-12-0.

Storr, Anthony (1983). The Essential Jung. New York. ISBN 0-691-02455-3.

Jacobi, J. (1973), The Psychology of C. G. Jung. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Jung, C.G. (1948). General aspects of dream psychology. In: Dreams. trans., R. Hull. Princeton, NJ:

“Michel Jouvet: Sleep research pioneer (1925 – 2017)”. aasm.org. American Academy of Sleep Medicine. October 4, 2017. Retrieved July 26, 2018.

“Kleitman, father of sleep research.” University of Chicago Chronicle V. 19(1), Sept. 23, 1999. University of Chicago. Retrieved 2008-05-19.

Kleitman, N., Sleep and Wakefulness, 1963, Reprint 1987: ISBN 9780226440736

The tribal imagination: Civilization and the savage mind. Harvard University Press. 2011. pp. 417. ISBN 978-0-674-05901-6

Stevens, Anthony, Archetype Revisited: An Updated Natural History of the Self. Brunner-Routledge, London; Inner City Books, Toronto.